Earlier Hypothesis Research Articles

Giant Water Clusters: Where Are They From?

A new mechanism for the formation and destruction of giant water clusters (ten to hundreds of micrometers) is proposed. Our earlier hypothesis was that the clusters are associates of liquid-crystal spheres (LCS), each of which is formed around a seed particle, a microcrystal of sodium chloride. In this study, we show that the ingress of LCSs into water from the surrounding air is highly likely. We followed the evolution of giant clusters during the evaporation of water. When a certain threshold of the ionic strength of a solution is exceeded, the LCSs begin to “melt”, passing into free water, and the salt crystals dissolve, ensuring re-growth of larger crystals as a precipitate on the substrate. A schematic diagram of the dynamics of phase transitions in water containing LCSs during evaporation is proposed. The results illustrate the salt dust cycle in nature.

No Support for Historical Candidate Gene or Candidate Gene-by-Interaction Hypotheses for Major Depression Across Multiple Large Samples.

Interest in candidate gene and candidate gene-by-environment interaction hypotheses regarding major depressive disorder remains strong despite controversy surrounding the validity of previous findings. In response to this controversy, the present investigation empirically identified 18 candidate genes for depression that have been studied 10 or more times and examined evidence for their relevance to depression phenotypes. Utilizing data from large population-based and case-control samples (Ns ranging from 62,138 to 443,264 across subsamples), the authors conducted a series of preregistered analyses examining candidate gene polymorphism main effects, polymorphism-by-environment interactions, and gene-level effects across a number of operational definitions of depression (e.g., lifetime diagnosis, current severity, episode recurrence) and environmental moderators (e.g., sexual or physical abuse during childhood, socioeconomic adversity). No clear evidence was found for any candidate gene polymorphism associations with depression phenotypes or any polymorphism-by-environment moderator effects. As a set, depression candidate genes were no more associated with depression phenotypes than noncandidate genes. The authors demonstrate that phenotypic measurement error is unlikely to account for these null findings. The study results do not support previous depression candidate gene findings, in which large genetic effects are frequently reported in samples orders of magnitude smaller than those examined here. Instead, the results suggest that early hypotheses about depression candidate genes were incorrect and that the large number of associations reported in the depression candidate gene literature are likely to be false positives.

A functional investigation of southern Cape Later Stone Age artefacts resembling aerophones

This paper describes possible sound-producing artefacts from two Later Stone Age deposits in the southern Cape, South Africa. Implements previously described as a ‘wirra wirra’ or ‘pendant’ from Klasies River main site (KRM), a ‘woer woer’ or ‘bullroarer’ and four ‘pendants’ from Matjes River (MR) are analysed and their sound producing qualities assessed through an actualistic research programme. For comparative purposes, a replica of an ethnographic ‘spinning disk’ was also spun and its sound recorded. All of the implements, except the MR ‘woer woer’ produced a sustained, pulsed, whirring sound when spun. Minor adjustments to the MR 5135 replica resulted in successful sound production. The frequency range of the KRM replica and ethnographic KK058 implement produced a frequency variation of between 52 Hz and 200 Hz. The frequency range of the pendant replicas varied from 55.55 to 250 Hz, comparable to other bullroarers. Spinning produces use-wear predominantly on the left laterals of the perforations, whereas pendant use produces use-wear along the upper sector of the perforation, thus allowing us to distinguish these two uses based on the placement of use-wear. We conclude that one of the bone artefacts previously thought to be a pendant, MR 40, most likely functioned as an instrument to produce sound. This investigation thus experimentally confirms that earlier hypotheses that the ‘wirra wirra’ from KRM and the ‘bullroarer’ from MR were aerophones are judicious. In addition we demonstrate for the first time that some archaeological pendants, such as MR 40, may have been used as free aerophones or bullroarers.

Effects of Voluntary Agonist-Antagonist Coactivation on Stability of Vertical Posture.

We explored the effects of voluntary coactivation of agonist-antagonist leg and trunk muscles on stability of vertical posture. Young healthy subjects performed several tasks while standing with no additional muscle coactivation, low coactivation, and high coactivation. Postural stability was estimated using indices of postural sway and of intertrial variance in the space of muscle groups with parallel scaling of activation levels (M-modes). An increase in coactivation led to a significant increase in the postural sway speed reflected in faster rambling and trembling trajectories. Coactivation also led to a relative drop in the variance component that had no effects on the center of pressure coordinate and an increase in the component that shifted the center of pressure. We conclude that additional muscle coactivation does not help to stabilize vertical posture and is more likely to lead to postural destabilization. The results are consistent with an earlier hypothesis on muscle coactivation ensuring abundance (excessive degrees of freedom) at the level of control variables.

The petrological characteristics and formation mechanism of Lake Beachrock in Lake Qinghai

以青海湖的湖滩岩为研究对象，通过显微镜观察、扫描电镜、矿物阴极发光性观察和电子探针等分析方法研究了湖滩岩的岩石学特征和形成机制.湖滩岩胶结物主要由暗色纹层和文石针组成，识别出五类胶结物晶体和三类胶结物组构.在暗色纹层中，有发现包覆式和缠绕式生长的微生物.微生物对泥晶方解石和黏土矿物起着生物稳定化作用（障积作用、捕获作用和粘结作用）.微生物生长过程中的新陈代谢影响了碳酸盐的溶解度，从而导致产生碳酸盐矿物在微生物席内的丝状体之间或沿着丝状体的沉淀作用.从研究湖滩岩胶结物垂向上和横向上的变化规律入手，发现胶结物的类型和组构与水深、温度、盐度、水动力条件有一定关系.破浪带和碎浪带的水深、温度、盐度适宜，为微生物作用最强的水动力带.通过对青海湖湖滩岩中的微生物作用特征及其发育模式的研究，认为湖滩岩中胶结物的形成受到微生物作用的影响较大，从而支持了微生物作用对碎屑岩早期成岩具有重要意义的假设.;The lake beachrock in Lake Qinghai as the research object, through microscope, SEM, mineral cathode luminance observation and electron probe analysis method to study the characteristics and precocious mechanism of lake beachrock. The beachrock cement is mainly composed of dark grain layers and aragonite needles. There are five kinds of cement crystals and three kinds of cement fabric. There is coating, voluble and conglutinating growth of microbes in the lake beachrock cement. Microorganisms for micritic calcite and clay mineral have a biological stabilization effect(barrier, and the roles of capture and bonding effect). The metabolism in the microbial growth will change the carbonate solubility and resulting in carbonate minerals is produced by the filaments in microbial mat or between precipitations along the filaments. From the lake beach rock cement on the lateral and vertical changes, it is found that the type and texture of the cement are related to water depth, temperature, salinity and hydrodynamic conditions. Water depth, temperature, and salinity are suitable in swash zone and breaker zone where microbial activities arethe strongest. Through the research of microbial characteristics and developmental pattern of beachrock cement in Lake Qinghai, we concluded that cement in the lake beachrock is affected by the microbial action, which support the biological role of clastic rock in early diagenetic hypothesis that it is of great significance.

An Orbital Window into the Ancient Sun’s Mass

Abstract Models of the Sun’s long-term evolution suggest that its luminosity was substantially reduced 2–4 billion years ago, which is inconsistent with substantial evidence for warm and wet conditions in the geological records of both ancient Earth and Mars. Typical solutions to this so-called “faint young Sun paradox” consider changes in the atmospheric composition of Earth and Mars, and, while attractive, geological verification of these ideas is generally lacking—particularly for Mars. One possible underexplored solution to the faint young Sun paradox is that the Sun has simply lost a few percent of its mass during its lifetime. If correct, this would slow, or potentially even offset, the increase in luminosity expected from a constant-mass model. However, this hypothesis is challenging to test. Here, we propose a novel observational proxy of the Sun’s ancient mass that may be readily measured from accumulation patterns in sedimentary rocks on Earth and Mars. We show that the orbital parameters of the Solar System planets undergo quasi-cyclic oscillations at a frequency, given by secular mode g 2 − g 5, that scales approximately linearly with the Sun’s mass. Thus by examining the cadence of sediment accumulation in ancient basins, it is possible distinguish between the cases of a constant-mass Sun and a more massive ancient Sun to a precision of greater than about 1 percent. This approach provides an avenue toward verification, or of falsification, of the massive early Sun hypothesis.

Geneza słowiańskiego sufiksu comparatiwu *-ěj-ьš- (pol. -ejsz-)

The aim of the article is to present the history of research on the origin of the complex formative of synthetic comparatives in Slavic. Section 1. deals with the earliest hypotheses, which are only briefly discussed due to the methodological immaturity peculiar to the relevant period, i.e. the 19th century. Section 2. concerns the so-called decasuative (or deadverbial) interpretations, including the most popular one, which is based on reconstructed instrumental forms in *-eh1. Section 3. reports a recent modification of this view: it is suggested that the transfer of the decasuative derivation onto verbal stems in *-eh1- > *-ě-, which are assumed as the ultimate derivational base of Slavic comparatives in *-ě-jьs--, makes the explanation more plausible in terms of chronology and typology.

Ocean circulation, ice shelf, and sea ice interactions explain Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles

The last glacial interval experienced abrupt climatic changes called Dansgaard-Oeschger (DO) events. These events manifest themselves as rapid increases followed by slow decreases of oxygen isotope ratios in Greenland ice core records. Despite promising advances, a comprehensive theory of the DO cycles, with their repeated ups and downs of isotope ratios, is still lacking. Here, based on earlier hypotheses, we introduce a dynamical model that explains the DO variability by rapid retreat and slow regrowth of thick ice shelves and thin sea ice in conjunction with changing subsurface water temperatures due to insulation by the ice cover. Our model successfully reproduces observed features of the records, such as the sawtooth shape of the DO cycles, waiting times between DO events across the last glacial, and the shifted antiphase relationship between Greenland and Antarctic ice cores. Our results show that these features can be obtained via internal feedbacks alone. Warming subsurface waters could have also contributed to the triggering of Heinrich events. Our model thus offers a unified framework for explaining major features of multimillennial climate variability during glacial intervals.

From empirical considerations to absolute ages: How geomagnetic field variation may date Teotihuacan mural paintings

Teotihuacan, the most important city of the Americas during the Classic period, developed a deep and complex civilization without any written histories. This millennial culture mostly used pictorial forms of visual communication expressed in numerous mural paintings. Thus, the knowledge of the absolute chronology of some of the most important mural arts is of great importance. Here, we report a comprehensive magnetic survey on two major murals of Palace of Quetzalcoatl, which represent an initial stage of the Teotihuacan archaeology. The magnetic mineralogy of sampled murals is dominated by both magnetite and hematite grains. The contribution of hematite, however, seems to be minor in the Pictorial Remanent Magnetization. Characteristic remanence was successfully isolated for 11 out of 16 analyzed samples belonging to both paintings. Archaeomagnetic dating was achieved using magnetic inclination and declination, yielding an interval between 312 CE and 409 CE as the best estimate of the time of painting of the murals. This study reinforces the early hypothesis that, red color mural paintings may be considered a complementary source of information about the secular variation of the Earth’s Magnetic Field.

Nonspecific stress response to temperature increase in Gammarus lacustris Sars with respect to oxygen-limited thermal tolerance concept.

The previously undescribed dynamics of the heat shock protein HSP70 and subsequent lipid peroxidation products have been assessed alongside lactate dehydrogenase activity for Gammarus lacustris Sars, an amphipod species from the saltwater Lake Shira (Republic of Khakassia). Individuals were exposed to a gradual temperature increase of 1 °C/hour (total exposure duration of 26 hours) starting from the mean annual temperature of their habitat (7 °C) up to 33 °C. A complex of biochemical reactions occurred when saltwater G. lactustris was exposed to the gradual changes in temperature. This was characterized by a decrease in lactate dehydrogenase activity and the launching of lipid peroxidation. The HSP70 level did not change significantly during the entire experiment. In agreement with the concept of oxygen-limited thermal tolerance, an accumulation of the most toxic lipid peroxides (triene conjugates and Schiff bases) in phospholipids occurred at the same time and temperature as the accumulation of lactate. The main criterion overriding the temperature threshold was, therefore, the transition to anaerobiosis, confirmed by the elevated lactate levels as observed in our previous associated study, and by the development of cellular stress, which was expressed by an accumulation of lipid peroxidation products. An earlier hypothesis, based on freshwater individuals of the same species, has been confirmed whereby the increased thermotolerance of G. lacustris from the saltwater lake was caused by differences in energy metabolism and energy supply of nonspecific cellular stress-response mechanisms. With the development of global climate change, these reactions could be advantageous for saltwater G. lacustris. The studied biochemical reactions can be used as biomarkers for the stress status of aquatic organisms when their habitat temperature changes.

Early contributions of crystallography to the atomic theory of matter

After briefly presenting early hypotheses on the submicroscopic origin of symmetry and polyhedral morphology in the crystals, the structural model proposed by Hauy in 1784, based on the periodic repetition of integrant molecules made up of simple molecules, is discussed. It is then highlighted how – through investigation of crystal hemihedry, isomorphism (mixed crystals) and optical activity – researches aiming at overtaking drawbacks of Hauy’s model brought basic ideas to achieve the modern knowledge of the atomic structure of matter. The atomic-scale interpretation of properties of the crystalline state soundly contributed, among others, to properly define molecules and atoms, determine the atomic weights, hypothesize stereoisomerism, build the periodic table of elements and define ionic radii and bond.

Geological and Geochemical Constraints on the Origin and Evolution of Life

The traditional tree of life from molecular biology with last universal common ancestor (LUCA) branching into bacteria and archaea (though fuzzy) is likely formally valid enough to be a basis for discussion of geological processes on the early Earth. Biologists infer likely properties of nodal organisms within the tree and, hence, the environment they inhabited. Geologists both vet tenuous trees and putative origin of life scenarios for geological and ecological reasonability and conversely infer geological information from trees. The latter approach is valuable as geologists have only weakly constrained the time when the Earth became habitable and the later time when life actually existed to the long interval between ∼4.5 and ∼3.85 Ga where no intact surface rocks are known. With regard to vetting, origin and early evolution hypotheses from molecular biology have recently centered on serpentinite settings in marine and alternatively land settings that are exposed to ultraviolet sunlight. The existence of these niches on the Hadean Earth is virtually certain. With regard to inferring geological environment from genomics, nodes on the tree of life can arise from true bottlenecks implied by the marine serpentinite origin scenario and by asteroid impact. Innovation of a very useful trait through a threshold allows the successful organism to quickly become very abundant and later root a large clade. The origin of life itself, that is, the initial Darwinian ancestor, the bacterial and archaeal roots as free-living cellular organisms that independently escaped hydrothermal chimneys above marine serpentinite or alternatively from shallow pore-water environments on land, the Selabacteria root with anoxygenic photosynthesis, and the Terrabacteria root colonizing land are attractive examples that predate the geological record. Conversely, geological reasoning presents likely events for appraisal by biologists. Asteroid impacts may have produced bottlenecks by decimating life. Thermophile roots of bacteria and archaea as well as a thermophile LUCA are attractive.

Similar controls on calcification under ocean acidification across unrelated coral reef taxa

Ocean acidification (OA) is a major threat to marine ecosystems, particularly coral reefs which are heavily reliant on calcareous species. OA decreases seawater pH and calcium carbonate saturation state (Ω), and increases the concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). Intense scientific effort has attempted to determine the mechanisms via which ocean acidification (OA) influences calcification, led by early hypotheses that calcium carbonate saturation state (Ω) is the main driver. We grew corals and coralline algae for 8-21weeks, under treatments where the seawater parameters Ω, pH, and DIC were manipulated to examine their differential effects on calcification rates and calcifying fluid chemistry (Ωcf , pHcf , and DICcf ). Here, using long duration experiments, we provide geochemical evidence that differing physiological controls on carbonate chemistry at the site of calcification, rather than seawater Ω, are the main determinants of calcification. We found that changes in seawater pH and DIC rather than Ω had the greatest effects on calcification and calcifying fluid chemistry, though the effects of seawater carbonate chemistry were limited. Our results demonstrate the capacity of organisms from taxa with vastly different calcification mechanisms to regulate their internal chemistry under extreme chemical conditions. These findings provide an explanation for the resistance of some species to OA, while also demonstrating how changes in seawater DIC and pH under OA influence calcification of key coral reef taxa.

Confidence in uncertainty: Error cost and commitment in early speech hypotheses.

Interactions with artificial agents often lack immediacy because agents respond slower than their users expect. Automatic speech recognisers introduce this delay by analysing a user’s utterance only after it has been completed. Early, uncertain hypotheses of incremental speech recognisers can enable artificial agents to respond more timely. However, these hypotheses may change significantly with each update. Therefore, an already initiated action may turn into an error and invoke error cost. We investigated whether humans would use uncertain hypotheses for planning ahead and/or initiating their response. We designed a Ghost-in-the-Machine study in a bar scenario. A human participant controlled a bartending robot and perceived the scene only through its recognisers. The results showed that participants used uncertain hypotheses for selecting the best matching action. This is comparable to computing the utility of dialogue moves. Participants evaluated the available evidence and the error cost of their actions prior to initiating them. If the error cost was low, the participants initiated their response with only suggestive evidence. Otherwise, they waited for additional, more confident hypotheses if they still had time to do so. If there was time pressure but only little evidence, participants grounded their understanding with echo questions. These findings contribute to a psychologically plausible policy for human-robot interaction that enables artificial agents to respond more timely and socially appropriately under uncertainty.

Guide Sign Analysis of Traffic Sign Data-Set Using Supervised Spiking Neuron Technique

In this paper, 20 guided traffic signs mostly displayed around Malacca area were selected as project databased. Early hypothesis was made as the error for each usable image will increased as more interference introduced to the original image used. Three types of conditions which are hidden region, image brightness and image rotation were selected as an experiment to analyze the performance of each sign used. Each condition will perform a specific error to generate their mean value and in the same, image recognition will take place in the matchup process. By focusing on the result, it produces hidden region critically ascending mean error value at 62.5% = 0.07 and has average value at others points. For image brightness effect, it shows a higher mean error value collected at less brightness points and non-stable pattern at 10% to 60% brightness. As for rotation upshot, the values show a critically ascending for error value at 22.5% and slightly increase at 2% to 5% rotation point. For the recognition process, at 6.25% hidden region, almost 70% of images are correctly matched to its own classes while at 62.5% hidden region only 40% of images are correctly matched to its own classes and leaving 2 images to outperform. For -40% brightness, 45% of images are correctly matched to its own classes while at 60% brightness 65% of images are correctly matched to its own classes and leaving 1 image to outperform. Lastly, at 2.5 degree rotation, 85% of images are correctly matched to its own classes while at 25° rotation, 45% of images are correctly matched to its own classes and leaving 2 images to outperform. Finally, the error forms will affect the final output response of the detected traffic signs used.

Warning Sign Analysis of Traffic Sign Data-Set Using Supervised Spiking Neuron Technique

In this paper, two types of conditions have been applied to analyze the performance of SNN towards usable traffic sign, which are hidden region and rotational effect. There are 20 warning traffic signs being focused on where there are regularly seen around Malacca area. These traffic sign needed to be embedded in this system as a databased to counter the output for mean error and recognition process for both conditions applied. Early hypothesis was design as the mean error and recognition process will degraded its performance as more intrusion get introduced in the system. For hidden region, the values show a critically rising error value at 62.5% = 0.123. While for mean error rotational effect, the values show an increasing abruptly for error value between 80 ̊ to 90 ̊ with 0.087% to 0.130%. For recognition process at 6.25% hidden region, 100% of images are correctly matchup to its own image. At 50% of hidden region, there is only 10% of image that able to be recognize while at 56.25% and 62.5% are leaving to outperform. At 10 ̊ rotation, 100% of images are perfectly recognized to its own image. At 60%, there is 30% of image able to recognize leaving others at 70%, 80% and 90% degrees rotation of images were outperformed. In view of element occasion driven handling, they open up new skylines for creating models with a colossal sum limit of recollecting and a solid capacity to quick adjustment. SNNs include another component, the transient hub, to the representation limit and the handling capacities of neural systems.

The sex chromosome system can influence the evolution of sex-biased dispersal.

Sex-biased dispersal is a much-discussed feature in literature on dispersal. Diverse hypotheses have been proposed to explain the evolution of sex-biased dispersal, a difference in dispersal rate or dispersal distance between males and females. An early hypothesis has indicated that it may rely on the difference in sex chromosomes between males and females. However, this proposal was quickly rejected without a real assessment. We propose a new perspective on this hypothesis by investigating the evolution of sex-biased dispersal when dispersal genes are sex-linked, that is when they are located on the sex chromosomes. We show that individuals of the heterogametic sex disperse relatively more than do individuals of the homogametic sex when dispersal genes are sex-linked rather than autosomal. Although such a sex-biased dispersal towards the heterogametic sex is always observed in monogamous species, the mating system and the location of dispersal genes interact to modulate sex-biased dispersal in monandry and polyandry. In the context of the multicausality of dispersal, we suggest that sex-linked dispersal genes can influence the evolution of sex-biased dispersal.

Sucrose-Caused Changes in the Frequency and Localization of Anticlinal Divisions in the Cambial Zone of Silver Birch

This study continues our previous experiments intended to elucidate the role of sucrose in a figured wood formation in silver birch (Betula pendula Roth var. carelica). The purpose of the study was the investigation of the role of sucrose in the regulation of cell division in the cambial zone. Using an earlier-developed technique, sucrose solutions of different concentrations have been delivered into trunk tissues of silver birch. A microscopic analysis of samples collected 28 days after the beginning of the experiment has shown that an increased sucrose concentration in an exogenous solution causes an increase in the frequency of anticlinal cell divisions in the cambial zone. In the case of high sucrose concentrations (10 or 20%), the zone of anticlinal divisions is significantly wider than in variants with low sucrose concentrations, since anticlinal divisions are observed on both phloem and xylem sides and at a larger distance from rays. A comparison of the obtained results with the previous experiments shows that the increased frequency of anticlinal divisions in cambial cells observed in the case of application of 10 or 20% sucrose solutions coincides with an increased parenchymatization of tissues. A revealed localization of anticlinal divisions within the cambial zone indicates that, in the case of the exogenous sucrose uptake, the morphogenesis of conductive tissues in silver birch (Betula pendula Roth var. pendula) occurs in the same way as in Karelian birch (Betula pendula Roth var. carelica). Data presented in this paper agree with the earlier hypothesis that the formation of figured wood similar to that of Karelian birch occurs due to increased sucrose content in trunk tissues.

Higher Education and Development in the Knowledge Society

Engendering well-being, peace and prosperity in a nation is a long-standing critical issue for possibly all countries worldwide. Many earlier hypotheses and formulas on how to generate ‘wealth’ have proven inadequate or failed. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the consensus was that the concepts of inclusive political institutions and inclusive economic institutions were crucial to development. However, with economic purposes, governments are increasingly prioritizing the acquisition of practical training and skills. This work argues that these policies are misleading. The integral education in higher education, especially by means of substantial positive externalities, can facilitate economic growth.

Unraveling the role of transient starch in the response of Arabidopsis to elevated CO2 under long-day conditions

Previous studies on Arabidopsis under long-term exposure to elevated CO2 have been conducted using starch synthesis and breakdown mutants cultured under short day conditions. These studies showed that starch synthesis can ameliorate the photosynthetic reduction caused by soluble sugar-mediated feedback regulation. In this work we characterized the effect of long-term exposure to elevated CO2 (800 ppm) on growth, photosynthesis and content of primary photosynthates in long-day grown wild type plants as well as the near starch-less (aps1) and the starch-excess (gwd) mutants. Notably, elevated CO2 promoted growth of both wild type and aps1 plants but had no effect on gwd plants. Growth promotion by elevated CO2 was accompanied by an increased net photosynthesis in WT and aps1 plants. However, the plants with the highest starch content (wild type at elevated CO2, gwd at ambient CO2, and gwd at elevated CO2) were the ones that suffered decreased in in vivo maximum carboxylation rate of Rubisco, and therefore, photosynthetic down-regulation. Further, the photosynthetic rates of wild type at elevated CO2 and gwd at elevated CO2 were acclimated to elevated CO2. Notably, elevated CO2 promoted the accumulation of stress-responsive and senescence-associated amino acid markers in gwd plants. The results presented in this work provide evidence that under long-day conditions, temporary storage of overflow photosynthate as starch negatively affect Rubisco performance. These data are consistent with earlier hypothesis that photosynthetic acclimation can be caused by accelerated senescence and hindrance of CO2 diffusion to the stroma due to accumulation of large starch granules.