Early Holocene Sites Research Articles

Oxygen isotope analysis of California mussel shells: seasonality and human sedentism at an 8,200-year-old shell midden on Santa Rosa Island, California

To evaluate coastal settlement and land use strategies among maritime hunter-gatherers, we analyzed oxygen isotope (δ18O) data from 131 marine carbonate samples from 21 California mussel (Mytilus californianus) shells obtained from a large ∼8,200-year-old shell midden (CA-SRI-666) on California’s Santa Rosa Island. Seasonal distributions of the isotopic data were assigned using a paleo-sea surface temperature model created by comparing modern sea surface temperatures (SST) to a fully profiled ∼8,200-year-old shell. For 20 additional shells, we used two sampling strategies to compare season-of-harvest inferences and explore whether the Early Holocene site occupants were sedentary. Estimated season-of-harvest differed by 35 % between the two sampling methods, corroborating recent isotope analysis of an 8,800-year-old shell midden on San Miguel Island. Shellfish appear to have been collected year-round at CA-SRI-666 from intertidal or subtidal water temperatures similar to modern SST in the vicinity of eastern Santa Rosa Island. The isotope results are consistent with other evidence from CA-SRI-666 that suggest that the site served as a residential base for relatively sedentary maritime people.

Beyond the Levant: First Evidence of a Pre-Pottery Neolithic Incursion into the Nefud Desert, Saudi Arabia

Pre-Pottery Neolithic assemblages are best known from the fertile areas of the Mediterranean Levant. The archaeological site of Jebel Qattar 101 (JQ-101), at Jubbah in the southern part of the Nefud Desert of northern Saudi Arabia, contains a large collection of stone tools, adjacent to an Early Holocene palaeolake. The stone tool assemblage contains lithic types, including El-Khiam and Helwan projectile points, which are similar to those recorded in Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B assemblages in the Fertile Crescent. Jebel Qattar lies ∼500 kilometres outside the previously identified geographic range of Pre-Pottery Neolithic cultures. Technological analysis of the typologically diagnostic Jebel Qattar 101 projectile points indicates a unique strategy to manufacture the final forms, thereby raising the possibility of either direct migration of Levantine groups or the acculturation of mobile communities in Arabia. The discovery of the Early Holocene site of Jebel Qattar suggests that our view of the geographic distribution and character of Pre-Pottery Neolithic cultures may be in need of revision.

The armadillo Propraopus sulcatus (Mammalia: Xenarthra) from the late Quaternary of northern Brazil and a revised synonymy with Propraopus grandis

This paper describes new remains of Propraopus sulcatus from a late Quaternary cave deposit located in Aurora do Tocantins, northern Brazil. Propraopus was recorded in numerous late Pleistocene–early Holocene sites in South America, and its inclusiveness has been long debated. In order to address some of the controversial taxonomic questions, the osteoderms of P. sulcatus were qualitatively and quantitatively compared to those of related nominal species (Propraopus grandis, Propraopus magnus, Dasypus bellus, and Dasypus punctatus); special attention was given to the former due to the debated synonymy between both taxa. Analyses reveal that there is no morphologic, spatial, or temporal discontinuity between P. sulcatus and P. grandis. Adopting morphologic, associational, and distributional criteria to define morphospecies, we believe it is impossible to clearly separate both nominal entities. As a consequence, in agreement with previous studies, we favor their synonymization. P. sulcatus has nomenclatural priority over P. grandis and should be the valid name for the species. The scarce analyzed remains referred to P. magnus show concordant size and morphology with P. sulcatus, but the analysis of more complete material is essential to determine its synonymization. Finally, we revised and updated the geochronologic distribution of Propraopus.

How to interpret informal flakes assemblages? Integrating morphological description, usewear and morphometric analysis gave better understanding of the behaviors of anatomically modern human from Song Terus (Indonesia)

Stone artifacts are the most numerous remains provided by early Holocene sites in Southeast Asia. They are thus of prime importance to understand better human behaviors of this region. However, they are typo-technologically difficult to characterize and consist mainly of informal flakes. This paper presents an innovative approach focusing on form and function to better assess the prehistoric use of stone tools in the region using a sample of flakes from the cave of Song Terus, Java, Indonesia. The integration of morphological description, usewear and morphometric analysis (Elliptical Fourier Analysis) allows a detailed characterization of tool use not possible with other methods. We demonstrate that a specific form of stone flake is not related to a particular function and vice versa. Our results show that tool production was not oriented towards the production of flakes of specific form, or to the production of flake blanks that could be modified by retouch but was a system where the control of flake shape was relaxed in favor of the selection of flakes suitable for particular tasks either during reduction or once core reduction had concluded.

Paleocoastal Lithic use on Western Santarosae Island, California

California's Northern Channel Islands have produced several Paleocoastal assemblages that include some of the most intricate and finely crafted lithic technologies in the Americas. Current understanding of chert use and availability on the islands comes primarily from research on Late Holocene sites from Santa Cruz Island, where chert sources played an important role in providing microdrills for Late Holocene Olivella bead production. New data from Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene sites suggest that Paleocoastal peoples relied heavily on other cherts from San Miguel and Santa Rosa islands. To examine the deeper history of lithic use on the islands, we analyzed eight Paleocoastal lithic assemblages from San Miguel and Santa Rosa, which were part of the larger island of Santarosae until about 10,000 years ago. We discuss lithic availability and material preference for formal and expedient stone tool manufacture on the Northern Channel Islands between ∼12,000 and 7,500 years ago.

Microarchaeological Approaches to the Identification and Interpretation of Combustion Features in Prehistoric Archaeological Sites

Combustion features inform archaeologists about the prehistoric use of space, subsistence behaviors, and tempo of site visitation. Their study in the field is difficult because burned sediments are susceptible to reworking and diagenesis. Microarchaeological analyses, including micromorphology, are essential for documenting the composition, preservation, and function of hearths and other burned residues. These investigations focus on the description of fuels, depositional fabrics and structures, and mineralogy. As evidenced by a literature review, microarchaeological analyses have much to offer Paleolithic archaeologists, while applications of the techniques to Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene sites and in ethnographic or experimental contexts are presently rare.

The earliest human occupations in Bolivia: A review of the archaeological evidence

This paper reviews archaeological research of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene sites in Bolivia. Given that few projects have explicitly dealt with issues related to early human peopling of the country, an attempt is made to provide a comprehensive overview of known available data, focusing on radiocarbon dated sites. Recent research in different regions of the country is not only improving understanding of the variability of early human settlements, but also providing new perspectives in relation to human adaptation and climate change. Furthermore, ongoing research in Iroco and Cueva Bautista, in the highland region of the country, shows that human colonization of high-altitude ecosystems (>3800 m asl) occurred, at least, by 13,000 cal BP.

Methodological Implications of New Radiocarbon Dates from the Early Holocene Site of Körtik Tepe, Southeast Anatolia

One of the greatest challenges of contemporary archaeology is to synthesize the large amount of radiocarbon and archaeological data into a useful dialogue. For the late Epipaleolithic and the Early Neolithic of the Near East, many14C ages have been published without precise stratigraphic documentation. Consequently, for archaeological age models we often must use some more elementary approaches, such as probabilistic summation of calibrated ages. The stratigraphy of Körtik Tepe allows us for the first time to study an extended series of14C ages of the earliest Holocene. In particular, we are able to analyze the data according to stratigraphic position within a well-documented profile. However, because of a plateau in the14C age calibration curve at the transition from the Younger Dryas to the Early Holocene, dates of this period can be interpreted only if an extended sequence of dates is available. Due to problems remaining in the calibration procedure, the best way to achieve an interpretation is to compare the results of different14C calibration software. In the present paper, we use the results of the calibration programs OxCal and CalPal. This approach has important implications for future age modeling, in particular for the question of how to date the transition from the Epipaleolithic to the PPNA precisely and accurately.

Mesolithic Cave Use in Greece and the Mosaic of Human Communities

This paper discusses the Greek Mesolithic record in the light of refinements to the international calibration curve and recent archaeological research. Central to the discussion are the time frame used for this period of Greek prehistory, and the diagnostic potential, or visibility, of Mesolithic stone tools. Rather than offering a comprehensive account of Mesolithic sites across Greece, this study focuses on a few known cave sites in the northwest, in order to bring out some less pronounced aspects of their material record. Close and comparative examination of their radiocarbon dates, and traits of continuity and change in the lithic industries, highlights a regional pattern. At some sites, occupation extended into the Holocene, but there is little or no contrast to the preceding, late Upper Palaeolithic technological traditions. A working hypothesis to account for the geographic, temporal and cultural diversity of early Holocene sites and finds in Greece is thus spelled out. It is proposed that the Greek Mesolithic record is the manifestation of a mosaic of human groups, of
 different origins and cultural traditions, subsisting on a variety of resources and living in different regions, at different times and seasons of the early Holocene.

Mesolithic Cave Use in Greece and the Mosaic of Human Communities

This paper discusses the Greek Mesolithic record in the light of refinements to the international calibration curve and recent archaeological research. Central to the discussion are the time frame used for this period of Greek prehistory, and the diagnostic potential, or visibility, of Mesolithic stone tools. Rather than offering a comprehensive account of Mesolithic sites across Greece, this study focuses on a few known cave sites in the northwest, in order to bring out some less pronounced aspects of their material record. Close and comparative examination of their radiocarbon dates, and traits of continuity and change in the lithic industries, highlights a regional pattern. At some sites, occupation extended into the Holocene, but there is little or no contrast to the preceding, late Upper Palaeolithic technological traditions. A working hypothesis to account for the geographic, temporal and cultural diversity of early Holocene sites and finds in Greece is thus spelled out. It is proposed that the Greek Mesolithic record is the manifestation of a mosaic of human groups, of different origins and cultural traditions, subsisting on a variety of resources and living in different regions, at different times and seasons of the early Holocene.

Frequency of pathology in a large natural sample from Natural Trap Cave with special remarks on erosive disease in the Pleistocene.

Population data are presented for erosive arthritis, osteoarthritis, diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), joint eburnation and dental injury in a fauna from Natural Trap Cave, Wyoming, represented by over thirty thousand bones from twenty-four different species. Erosive arthritis is limited to the bovids, Bison, Ovis and Bootherium. Erosive arthritis is also present in bison from the late Pleistocene Twelve Mile Creek site in Kansas and from an early Holocene site in Wisconsin. The restriction of the known Pleistocene occurrences to bovids indicate the presence of a pathogen that predisposes bovids to erosive arthritis. The pathogen was identified as Mvcobacterium tuberculosis. Osteoarthritis and DISH are rare in the Natural Trap Cave, although Bison shows a relatively high occurrence of the former. Tooth breakage due to errors in bone manipulation was a problem for carnivores and one lion, Pantera atrox, was apparently reduced by joint disease to a scavenging lifestyle.

Distinguishing wild and domestic wheat and barley spikelets from early Holocene sites in the Near East

Identifying morphologically domestic cereals is essential to understanding the origins of agriculture. Charred spikelet bases provide the best evidence for distinguishing wild from domestic varieties of emmer, einkorn and barley; however until now, identification criteria have not been agreed upon or well established. We examined more than 20,000 remains of charred spikelets from eleven early Holocene sites in the Near East, classing them into nine groups. We show that damage and fragmentation of wheat spikelets probably due to dehusking makes identification problematic, and only when the abscission scar is well preserved is it possible to distinguish wild spikelets which shatter from domestic spikelets which adhere and separate during threshing. Barley spikelets were found to be less damaged and more easily identified, perhaps because the processing was less damaging. Einkorn was dominant over emmer on early sites, whereas on later sites emmer was dominant. Identifications presented here from eleven sites date from approximately 13000 to 8200 cal b.p. They give an incomplete picture, but no domestic cereals were identified during the PPNA (Pre-pottery Neolithic A). Early PPNB Aswad produced domestic barley but at other sites for this period the evidence is inconclusive. Unequivocal signs of domestic emmer spikelets appear during the Middle PPNB about 10,000 years ago but wild forms continue as part of the crop after this period. These conclusions are based on limited data. Future studies will undoubtedly produce a more accurate picture.

A functional analysis of grinding stones from an early holocene site at Donghulin, North China

The processes that led to the transition from small mobile groups of hunter-gatherers in the Late Pleistocene to sedentary communities of the Early Holocene in north China are poorly understood. The Donghulin site in Beijing was occupied at the onset of the Holocene, and excavations have revealed a rich archaeological record for investigating the changing subsistence strategies during this transitional period. A functional study of two grinding stones (a slab and a handstone) near a burial dated to 9220–8750 cal BC at Donghulin investigated the range of plants exploited during this early occupation period. Starch residues indicate that the grinding stones were used for processing plants, and confirm processing of acorns, which is consistent with the incidence of oak in the pollen record. The usewear, with only rare patches of developed polish, suggests that plant parts of low silica content were processed, although usewear on the handstone suggests processing of two or more plant taxa. The results suggest that the use of grinding stones to process plant foodstuffs, particularly acorns, may have played a major role in the subsistence strategy during the transitional period to sedentism and agriculture in some parts of north China.

Banana Cultivation in South Asia and East Asia: A review of the evidence from archaeology and linguistics

South Asia provides evidence for introduced banana cultivars that are surprisingly early in the Indus Valley but late elsewhere in India. Although phytolith data are still limited, systematic samples from fourteen sites in six regions suggest an absence of bananas from most of Neolithic/Chalcolithic South Asia, but presence in part of the Indus valley. Evidence from textual sources and historical linguistics from South Asia and from China suggest the major diffusion of banana cultivars was in the later Iron Age or early historic period, c. 2000 years ago. Nevertheless Harappan period phytolith evidence from Kot Diji, suggests some cultivation by the late third or early second millennium B.C., and the environmental context implies hybridization with Musa balbisiana Colla had already occurred. Evidence of wild banana seeds from an early Holocene site in Sri Lanka probably attests to traditions of utilisation of M. balbisiana, a plausible area for hybridization with cultivated Musa acuminata Colla bananas, perhaps already being moved by the later third millennium B.C. Hybridization here, and/or in the New Guinea area now seems more plausible than hybridization in northern Southeast Asia (from Burma through Eastern India) as Simmonds had hypothesized.

An Early Maritime Biface Technology at Daisy Cave, San Miguel Island, California: Reflections on Sample Size, Site Function, and Other Issues

In North American archaeology, the study of distinctive biface technologies has been critical to understanding early migrations, adaptations, and interactions—from Clovis and other fluted points, to stemmed or leaf-shaped points of the Far West, and the wide variety of point types that mark later time periods. In most terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene sites of coastal California, points and other bifaces are relatively uncommon and crude, a pattern sometimes attributed to a heavy economic focus on shellfish and plant food gathering. At Daisy Cave on San Miguel Island, stratigraphically-controlled excavations during the 1990s recovered a small assemblage of bifaces that seemed to fit this general pattern. Recent data suggest, however, that a sophisticated maritime hunting technology existed on the Northern Channel Islands during the terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene. In this article, we describe the bifaces recovered from Paleocoastal (∼10,200 to 8500 cal BP) strata at Daisy Cave, then discuss site function, small sample size, and other issues that can limit the interpretation of ancient technologies and cultural-historical relationships. The result is a cautionary tale about interpreting small assemblages of projectile points and bifaces from early Pacific Coast sites, where sea level rise and coastal erosion already pose significant interpretive problems.

Colonizing Seascapes: Comparative Perspectives on the Development of Maritime Relations in Scandinavia and Patagonia

The lowering of global sea level during the Pleistocene by more than 100 m and subsequent inundation of coastal areas constitutes a problem in terms of general research on early maritime-oriented societies. However, post-glacial isostatic rise in glaciated regions has produced raised shorelines of Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene age, e.g., in Scandinavia, Patagonia, and North America. As these regions contain the oldest preserved coastal areas, they are imperative for the understanding of the development of maritime hunter-gatherers. The extensive Norwegian coastline appears to have been colonized in the course of the few hundred years around 9500 cal B.C. An overwhelming majority of Early Holocene sites are found in the fiord/skerry coastal landscape, indicating that marine resources were vital in the subsistence pattern of people occupying the region. The lithic tradition is clearly linked to specialized megafauna hunters in the continental plains (the Ahrensburgian complex of northwestern Europe), but the facts about and dynamics of the development of the marine subsistence pattern are unclear. This paper focuses on this problem—with comparative perspectives towards the emergence of maritime foragers in Patagonia.

Not such a new light: a response to Ammerman and Noller

Ammerman and Noller (2005) question several aspects of investigations at the early Holocene site of Akrotiri Aetokremnos in Cyprus. Here we address their criticisms, paying particular attention to three ambiguities that they noted. We also suggest that their claim to having discovered contemporary sites may be premature.

ARCHAEOLOGY IN VIETNAM] Results of recent research into the lithic industries from late Pleistocene and early Holocene sites in northern Vietnam

ARCHAEOLOGY IN VIETNAM] Results of recent research into the lithic industries from late Pleistocene and early Holocene sites in northern Vietnam

Beads, Bifaces, and Boats: An Early Maritime Adaptation on the South Coast of San Miguel Island, California

Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene sites on California's Channel Islands provide evidence for early maritime activity, including the use of seaworthy boats. Numerous early shell middens have been identified, but specific information on the maritime peoples who occupied them is limited. Our research at CA‐SMI‐608, a roughly 9,500‐year‐old shell midden on San Miguel Island, produced a relatively large assemblage of bifaces and other chipped stone artifacts, shell beads, worked bone, and well‐preserved faunal remains. Food remains are dominated by mussels, abalones, and other shellfish from the rocky intertidal, but fish, sea mammal, and sea bird remains were also recovered. These data provide a detailed view of early maritime activities along an arid coastline previously considered marginal to human settlement.

Dismantling Dung: Delayed Use of Food Resources among Early Holocene Foragers of the Libyan Sahara

At Uan Afuda, and other Early Holocene sites of the Acacus mountains, in the Libyan Sahara, dung layers and plant accumulation are a major, but repeatedly neglected, feature of hunter-gatherer communities. To understand the formation and meaning of such features, a multidimensional analysis has been undertaken, combining micromorphological, palynological, botanical, archaeozoological, and archaeological data. The hypothesis here formulated is twofold: plant accumulations are evidence of anthropic activity aimed at the storage of fodder; and dung layers are related to a forced penning of a ruminant, very likely Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia). The exploration of these two features has hinted at the existence of a deep reciprocal relationship, which has been interpreted as the cultural control of wild Barbary sheep, leading to a delayed use of food resources. This behavior may be considered an opportunistic strategy adopted to minimize the effects of lean periods and implicates increasing cultural complexity within Late Acacus Saharan forager societies of the 9th millennium B.P.