Early Head Start Research Research Articles

Middle Childhood Feelings Toward Mothers: Predictions From Maternal Directiveness at the Age of Two and Respect for Autonomy Currently

AbstractThe goals of this study were to examine (1) stability of maternal directiveness during interactions with their children from toddlerhood to late middle childhood, (2) direct and mediated relations between mothers' directiveness when children were two years old, mothers' respect for autonomy and children's positivity and negativity toward their mothers when children were in late middle childhood, and (3) differences in these paths by ethnoracial group. Participants included 876 European‐American, 789 African‐American, and 411 Mexican‐American mothers and their children from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project. Maternal respect for autonomy at Time 2 partially mediated an association between Time 1 directiveness and observed child positivity toward mothers at Time 2. There was also a direct inverse link between Time 1 maternal directiveness and children's observed positivity toward mothers at Time 2. Relations were similar across ethnoracial groups and for boys and girls. The discussion focuses on heterotypic stability in directive parenting and its implications for children's feelings toward their mothers.

Low-income, minority fathers' control strategies and their children's regulatory skills.

The current study explored the bidirectional association of children's individual characteristics, fathers' control strategies at 24 months, and children's regulatory skills at prekindergarten (pre-K). Using a sample of low-income, minority families with 2-year-olds from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project (n = 71), we assessed the association between child gender and vocabulary skills, fathers' control strategies at 24 months (e.g., regulatory behavior and regulatory language), and children's sustained attention and emotion regulation at prekindergarten. There were three main findings. First, fathers overwhelmingly used commands (e.g., "Do that.") to promote compliance in their 24-month-old children. Second, children's vocabulary skills predicted fathers' regulatory behaviors during a father-child interaction whereas children's gender predicted fathers' regulatory language during an interaction. Third, controlling for maternal supportiveness, fathers' regulatory behaviors at 24 months predicted children's sustained attention at pre-K whereas fathers' regulatory language at 24 months predicted children's emotion regulation at pre-K. Our findings highlight the importance of examining paternal contributions to children's regulatory skills.

The Buffering Effect of Childhood Routines: Longitudinal Connections Between Early Parenting and Prekindergarten Learning Readiness of Children in Low-Income Families

ABSTRACT.The importance of quality parenting as a contributing factor to children's competence in emotion and behavior regulation and learning readiness during early childhood is grounded in research that is multifaceted and supported by attachment theory. By conducting secondary data analysis with 2,977 children in low-income families enrolled in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation (EHSRE), this study investigated the longitudinal connections between early parenting and child developmental outcomes across 3 child age-related time periods: 14 months, 36 months, and 60 months. The parent–child processes are supported by conceptualizations on the developmental trajectories in children. Path analysis using structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that parenting stress mediates the consequences of early parenting. Engagement in child routines at bedtime buffers early parenting and parenting stress with effects on child emotion and behavior regulation and later learning readiness for language and problem solving. Analyses controlled for a child's gender and race/ethnicity. The findings suggest that using child routines as a way to address the negative effects in compromised early childhood environments offers an integrative framework for practice intervention and policy. Future research directions recommend testing of different dosages of child routines on child development. Study limitations and implications for practice and program development are considered.

Stability of biological father presence as a proxy for family stability: cross-racial associations with the longitudinal development of emotion regulation in toddlerhood.

The current study, utilizing data from the National Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project (Love etal., 2005) explored the relationship between biological father presence and emotion regulation over toddlerhood among children from low-income families. Conceptualizing biological father presence as a proxy for family role development, results are interpreted from a role development theoretical perspective. The latent growth curve model was compared based on child ethnoracial status (African American, Caucasian, Hispanic) and child gender. Consistent biological father presence was associated with toddlers' regulatory development across toddlerhood, and this relationship was most robust among Caucasian toddlers as compared to African American toddlers. Findings for Hispanic toddlers were not significantly different from those of Caucasian or African American families. Results bolster the literature on father presence and child outcomes. Analyses address consistency in father presence as a proxy for coherent role development and define a link between consistent father presence and children's regulatory development, demonstrating ethnoracial differences which are likely attributed to the social construction of family roles.

Road to Readiness

This study utilized data from the Michigan component of the National Early Head Start Research and Evaluation study to examine toddlers' joint attention at 14 months (parent report measure of toddlers' initiating behaviors, e.g., extends arm to show you something he or she is holding, reaches out and gives you a toy he or she has been holding, and points at something interesting) as a mediator of the relations between early mother–child interactions (e.g., mother and child behaviors in response to one another's cues) and later school readiness skills in a low-income sample (N = 127 mother–child dyads). Understanding relations between early parent–child interactions, joint attention, and later school readiness skills is critical to identifying developmental paths of economically at-risk children. Results showed that toddlers' joint attention behaviors at 14 months partially mediated the path between mother–child interaction at 14 months and later school readiness, measured by children's emotion regulation, social-cognition, language development, and literacy and mathematics academic outcomes, at approximately 5 years of age. Results suggest the important roles of early mother–child interactions in low-income families and joint attention in promoting school readiness skills.

The influence of family routines on the resilience of low-income preschoolers

Using data from the Birth to Three Phase (1996–2001) of the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, we investigated whether family routines at 14, 24, and 36months play a role in the development of children's self-regulation and cognitive ability at 36months. The moderating effects of child sex and race/ethnicity were also examined. Analyses revealed that routines do matter for child outcomes; concurrent routines appear to be critical for fostering self-regulation at 36months, whereas early routines may be important for children's later cognitive ability. Second, the effects differed by child sex, with early routines having a stronger association for girls and concurrent routines having a stronger association for boys. Associations also varied by race/ethnicity such that routines appear to matter slightly more for African–American children than European–American and Hispanic children. Implications of these findings with respect to strength-based interventions for low-income preschoolers and their families are discussed.

Theories of change and outcomes in home-based Early Head Start programs

Programs to promote children's early development are based on a set of assumptions, explicit or implicit, about intended outcomes and how the program will effect change. The “theories of change” were examined in ten home-based programs in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project (EHSREP), using data collected through multiple interviews with program staff. All home-based programs indicated that parenting outcomes were among their highest three priorities, while only 4 of 10 programs said that child outcomes were in their top priorities. The pattern of outcome differences between randomly-assigned program and control group participants reflected the programs’ theories of change in several ways. Early Head Start home-based programs showed positive impacts on 9 of 9 parenting outcomes, including parental supportiveness, home language and learning supports, emotional responsiveness, and family conflict when children were 24 months of age. Significant program impacts on child cognitive skills (Bayley MDI scores) and social behavior (observed child engagement of parent during play) were found when children were 36 months of age. Mediation analyses showed that the 54% of the program impact on 36-month child cognitive scores was mediated by 24-month program impacts on parental supportiveness, language and learning support, emotional responsiveness, and family conflict, and 47% of the program impact on 36-month child engagement of parent was mediated by 24-month impacts on parental supportiveness, language and cognitive stimulation, and emotional responsiveness. Results from mediation analyses were consistent with these home-based programs’ theories of change, supporting the efficacy of focusing on parent change as a mechanism for child outcomes in home visiting programs.

Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO) in Diverse Ethnic Groups

ABSTRACTParenting interactions are important for children's early development, but existing observational measures of parenting are often difficult for practitioners to use in their work with parents and have been developed based on primarily European American middle‐income parents. Practitioners working with parents of infants and young children need a psychometrically strong observational measure of parenting behaviors appropriate for diverse groups. We tested the reliability and validity of 89 specific parenting behavior items by having observers rate over 4,500 viderecorded observations of parent–infant interaction from the archive of the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project and other research. These observations at multiple age points were from over 2,000 low‐icome families, including European Americans, African Americans, and Latino Americans. Interrater agreement was tested for each item. Scale internal consistency and single‐factor structure were tested within each of four domains—affection, responsiveness, encouragement, and teaching. Validity was tested with concurrent parenting measures and child development outcome measures. The 29 most consistently reliable and valid items comprise the final version of Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO), an evidence‐based observational measure of parenting with very young children that is psychometrically sound and useful for practitioners working with diverse groups.

Longitudinal associations among interest, persistence, supportive parenting, and achievement in early childhood

This study investigates two facets of children's school readiness: interest in new cognitive tasks (interest) and persistence in task completion (persistence). Little attention has been paid to the early development of these learning behaviors, although they might prove susceptible to intervention even before school entry. Using data from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, a sample of low-income children (N=1771) was followed to model bidirectional associations among interest and persistence and maternal supportive parenting between ages 1 and 3, and estimate associations between children's interest and persistence at age 3 and their academic skills at age 5. Results indicate that maternal supportive parenting influences children's interest and persistence more strongly and consistently than interest or persistence influences parenting, and that interest but not persistence transacts with parenting over time. Interest and persistence were equally predictive of children's early academic skills. Findings affirm that both interest and persistence during toddlerhood predict children's academic standing at school entry.

The Importance of Early, Targeted Intervention: The Effect of Family, Maternal, and Child Characteristics on the Use of Physical Discipline

Secondary analysis of Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Study longitudinal data explored family, parent, and child factors that contribute to the use of physical discipline with infants and toddlers. The sample included mothers (N = 1,580) who self reported the use of spanking at 14, 24, and 36 months. Eighteen percent of the mothers (n = 287) indicated that their children experienced consistent physical discipline. Data were analyzed using binary logistic regression. Participation in parenting classes resulted in a 30% reduction in the use of physical discipline. For every year older the mother was at the birth of the child, there was a 7% decrease in physical discipline. Increased knowledge of child development reduced spanking by 35%. Implications for social work practice with families of young children are discussed.

Mother–Infant Interactions in Early Head Start: A Person-Oriented Within-Ethnic Group Approach

SYNOPSIS Objective . This article identifies patterns of mothering in low-income families from three ethnic groups and explores whether those patterns yield similar associations with child outcomes. Design . A person-centered within-group approach was used to examine observed patterns of mothering among European American (n = 740), African American (n = 604), and Mexican American (n = 322) low-income mothers and their 1-year-olds who were participating in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project. Cluster analytic techniques were employed using four dimensions of mothering coded from videotapes: supportiveness, directiveness/intrusiveness, negative regard, and detachment. Results . Three similar mothering patterns were seen within each ethnic group: Supportive (48%–52%), Directive (29%–30%), and Detached (14%–19%). Although the patterns of mothering were similar, mean scores on discrete mothering behaviors differed across ethnic groups. A fourth pattern—Harsh—was found among European American and African American mothers and was characterized by high levels of negativity (5%–7%). Associations between mothering patterns and three child outcomes at ages 2 and 3 years (cognitive test score, emotional regulation, and engagement of mother) validated cluster solutions and revealed some variation in prediction across ethnic groups. However, Supportive mothering was optimal in all three ethnic groups. Conclusions . Within-group analyses permitted identification of ethnically meaningful mothering patterns. Across the ethnic groups, within-group structures of mothering were similar with comparable predictive power for child outcomes despite group differences in the magnitudes of mean scores for constructs such as supportiveness and directiveness.

Hierarchical Regression and Structural Equation Modeling

This article reviews the life course perspective and considers various life course hypotheses such as trajectories, transitions, critical periods, sequencing, duration, and cumulative effects. Hierarchical regression and structural equation modeling are suggested as analyses to use in life course research. Secondary analysis was performed on the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Study, 1996-2010, to illustrate their strengths and challenges. Models investigated the influence of mother and infant characteristics and of parent-child dysfunction at 14 and 24 months to children's cognitive outcomes at 36 months. Findings were interpreted and discussed in the context of life course hypotheses.

Mother–Child Interactions in Early Head Start: Age and Ethnic Differences in Low-Income Dyads

SYNOPSIS Objective . This article describes the videotaped mother–child interaction procedures and coding used in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, a sample of low-income families, half of whom received the Early Head Start services (treatment group) and half of whom did not (control group), based on within-site random assignment (17 sites). A total of 1,838 dyads were observed and videotaped in the home (39% European American, 36% African American, and 25% Latin American). Design . When the children were 1, 2, and 3 years of age, a “Three Bag” semi-structured play activity was conducted, and when the children were 5 years of age, a “Play Dough task” was conducted. Results . Psychometric properties of the coding scales were similar for the three groups and across the four ages. In general, mean scores were higher on positive and lower on negative mothering for European American dyads than for African American or Latin American dyads. Ethnic differences were generally greatest for positive, and smallest for negative, mothering behaviors. Ethnic differences decreased as children got older. Differences were reduced when controlling for a number of socioeconomic status and other characteristics on average by 40%. Intercorrelations across age were stronger for positive, and smaller for negative mothering; even smaller intercorrelations were found for child behaviors. Conclusions . The coding system developed for Early Head Start was reliable and valid across three ethnic groups of low-income families. Ethnic differences were partially accounted for by other family characteristics. Some stability in mothering behaviors over time was seen (especially for positive mothers), although correlations were modest.

Longitudinal Connections of Maternal Supportiveness and Early Emotion Regulation to Children’s School Readiness in Low-Income Families

Maternal supportiveness and children’s emotion regulation are considered crucial for the development of school readiness, and enhancing both is particularly important for children from low-income families who are at higher risk for reduced school readiness. This study uses latent growth curve analysis to examine longitudinal connections between maternal supportiveness and toddler emotion regulation as predictors of children’s cognitive school readiness at age 5 and as mediators of the relation between family demographic risk and cognitive school readiness. The sample includes 1,258 mother–child dyads enrolled in the Early Head Start Research Evaluation project. Results support the hypothesized connections between initial and subsequent growth in maternal supportiveness and children’s emotion regulation with later cognitive school readiness. Children’s initial emotion regulation and growth in emotion regulation partially mediate the relation between initial maternal supportiveness and school readiness. Maternal supportiveness, but not emotion regulation, partially mediates the effects of demographic risk on school readiness. Tests of gender moderation indicate that model effect sizes in the relation between maternal supportiveness and emotion regulation are more robust for girls. Findings imply that enhancing early maternal supportiveness and children’s emotion regulation benefits children’s early learning readiness. Limitations of the study and future directions are considered as well.

Patterns of Maternal Directiveness by Ethnicity Among Early Head Start Research Participants

SYNOPSIS Objective . Using the Early Head Start dataset, this study examined change over time in European American, African American, and Mexican American mothers' directiveness during play with their young children and associations between these patterns and their children's engagement with and negativity toward them. The influences of maternal positive and negative regard were also investigated. Design . Mother–child dyads (938 European American, 849 African American, and 465 Mexican American) participated in semistructured play sessions when children were 1, 2, 3, and 5 years old. Videotapes were coded for mothers' directiveness, positive regard, and negative regard and for children's engagement with and negativity toward their mothers. Results . All three groups declined in directiveness over time, but varied in initial levels and in rates and patterns of decline. European American mothers had the lowest directiveness ratings and African American mothers had the highest; Mexican American mothers showed the steepest declines after the first observation. Directiveness had generally negative implications for children's behavior toward their mothers, although Mexican American children were least affected. In all three groups, maternal positive regard weakened, while maternal negative regard strengthened, inverse relations between directiveness and child engagement. Conclusions . Although there are ethnic differences in levels of directiveness during play with 1- to 5-year-olds, there are also across-group commonalities in the negative implications of high directiveness, especially in the contexts of low positive and high negative maternal regard.

Poverty, caregiver depression and stress as predictors of children's externalizing behaviours in a low‐income sample

AbstractPrevious research suggests a relationship between poverty, caregiver depression, caregiver stress and children's externalizing behaviour. However, little research exists to suggest the manner in which these concepts are interrelated. Latent growth curve analyses were conducted on caregiver–child dyads data from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project to identify the path through which poverty, caregiver depression, caregiver stress and child externalizing behaviours were related. Analyses identified a path through which caregiver stress and depression mediated the effect of poverty on child externalizing behaviours. In addition, the influence of caregiver depression on child externalizing behaviours was mediated by caregiver stress. Implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.

Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Behavior Problems in Preschool Children from Low-Income Families: Comparison of Reports from Mothers and Teachers

This study compared behavior problems of children of mothers with elevated depressive symptoms and children of mothers with non-elevated depressive symptoms, using the same measure for mothers and teachers. Participants included 914 mother–teacher dyads of low-income children (M age of child = 62.9 months, SD = 4.0) who participated in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project. Mothers completed a shortened version of CES-D to evaluate their own depressive symptoms. Teachers and mothers completed the Family and Child Experiences Survey Interviews (FACES) to assess children’s behavior problems. The results showed that children of mothers with elevated depressive symptoms-higher than the cut-off score for possible depression- showed higher aggressive and hyperactive behaviors than did children of mothers with non-elevated depressive symptoms according to the mothers’ rating; however, teachers rated the children no differently. Both mothers and teachers reported higher internalizing behaviors in children of mothers with elevated depressive symptoms than did those of mothers with non-elevated depressive symptoms. Maternal depressive symptoms moderated the relations between informants (mothers and teachers) and externalizing behaviours (aggressive and hyperactive) of children. These findings underscore the need for research in different settings such as at home and at school, to measure children’s behavior problems in order to gain a more comprehensive perspective on child functioning. Results suggest an emphasis on intervention or prevention programs targeting internalizing behavior problems, specifically for children of depressed mothers in low-income families.

Father-toddler communication in low-income families: The role of paternal education and depressive symptoms.

Using data from a racially and ethnically diverse sample of low-income fathers and their 2-year-old children who participated in the Early Head Start Research Evaluation Project (n = 80), the current study explored the association among paternal depressive symptoms and level of education, fathers' language to their children, and children's language skills. There were three main findings. First, there was large variability in the quality and quantity of language used during linguistic interactions between low-income fathers and their toddlers. Second, fathers with higher levels of education had children who spoke more (i.e. utterances) and had more diverse vocabularies (i.e. word types) than fathers with lower levels of education. However, fathers with more depressive symptoms had children with less grammatically complex language (i.e. smaller MLUs) than fathers with fewer depressive symptoms. Third, direct effects between fathers' depressive symptoms and level of education and children's language outcomes were partially mediated by fathers' quantity and quality of language.

Men in the mirror: A qualitative examination of low-income men's perceptions of their childhood relationships with their fathers

This study presents analysis of in-depth, qualitative interviews with 25 low-income, urban Latino and African-American fathers of 5- to 7-year-olds conducted by the researchers from 2003 to 2005. Participants are a subsample drawn from a larger pool of fathers from New York City (NYC) who were part of the Fathers and Newborn Study (FANS), a strand of the National Early Head Start Research and Evaluation study, with the goal of examining men's perceptions of their childhood relationships with their fathers and their views on how these experiences affected their parenting. Interviews were examined for thematic content using grounded theory techniques. Findings revealed that the vast majority of men felt their fathers had been disengaged in their lives, with only one-third reporting having seen their fathers at least a few times a week or more over the course of childhood. Men whose fathers were accessible over the course of childhood often described their fathers as hardworking and talked of appreciating th...

Parenting during early childhood in low-income families: Variation by child gender

This study used saturated path models to examine whether mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms, the conflict they experience as a couple, and the home environmental chaos forecast the quality of parenting. We also examined how child gender moderated parenting. Using data from the National Early Head Start Research and Evaluation project (EHSRE) (n = 588), we found that mothers with high levels of depression reported spanking girls more often than boys whereas fathers who reported high couple conflict were observed to be less supportive of girls than of boys. But when the home environment was rated as highly chaotic, boys were spanked more often by fathers, and mothers were observed to be less supportive. Fathers were less intrusive and mothers were more supportive with boys but not with girls when fathers reported a high number of depressive symptoms. The findings have implications for programs aimed at improving parenting behaviors.