Early Church Research Articles

From the Treasuries of the Macedonian Orthodox Church—The Archbishopric of Ohrid: Notes on the Sacral Collection and Art Works

From the Treasuries of the Macedonian Orthodox Church—The Archbishopric of Ohrid: Notes on the Sacral Collection and Art Works

Review Article

Review Article

Book Review: Exploring the New Testament Vol.1 Gospels and Acts

New Testament is a collection of writings that provide an important historical source about the birth of Jesus, His teachings, and, how the 'Good News' spread through the Apostles after Jesus's death. Wenham and, Walton took their portion of the vast land to provide important reading for anyone who wished to study the New Testament in terms of historical, theological, narrative interpretation and, guidance in learning other things from the various writings in the New Testament. Volume 1 discusses the Four Gospels and, Acts from the historical context at the birth of Jesus, the life of the early church and, the Roman colonial era that provides its own effectiveness when interpreting the New Testament. Wenham and Walton use simple and, practical writing patterns but it is in that simplicity that becomes even more delicious when reading them. The way of speaking is used to provide beauty for readers of the Gospels and, Acts in the present so as to provide good spiritual interaction living life as a people of Christ. The Christian's hope of eternal life in Christ was also successfully explored by Wenham and Walton, as two of the most prominent writers, teachers and, pastors in the world today.

The genesis and evolution of church-planting movements missiology

While the dramatic growth of church-planting movements (CPMs) in non-Christian contexts around the world provides ample opportunity to explain their emergence and significance, a missiology of these movements is struggling to keep pace. This article argues that CPM is a unique feature in the field of mission studies that emerged in the later 20th century. Although it shares some of the same characteristics as the early Church Growth Movement discourse, CPMs today are a specific type of movement occurring mostly in least-reached Muslim and Hindu contexts. CPM missiology contains a number of features and unknowns which demonstrate that the discourse is both evolving and invaluable for how the global church understands mission.

Repentance and forgiveness: Classical and patristic perspectives on a reformation theme

This article argues that from classical to early modern times, repentance and forgiveness have been experienced as desired qualities for human coexistence in a fallible world. The early church Fathers reveal a basic continuity in expression of repentance between Christianity and the classical world, as the church sometimes resorted to prevailing cultural mechanisms for reconciliation. These included a common evaluation of the past and the public commitment to a different way of life. Christianity emphasised the vertical dimension of repentance, as it insisted on God as an involved party who was transgressed against by any form of horizontal human sin. This went far beyond the occasional provocation of individual gods by arrogance but was personal and relational in character. The church integrated the practice of repentance and conversion through special days and seasons, as well as by an emphasis on the Holy Scriptures as the divine standard for human living. Although formats differed, the theological notions show a spiritual agreement and consistency. For repentance to qualify for forgiveness, a baptised Christian required conviction of sin, reconciliation through God’s appointed means, and a proven new course of behaviour that complied with divine standards.

Wild Girls in the Carthaginian Church? Cyprian’s De Habitu Virginum

Abstract Cyprian’s homily De Disciplina et Habitu Virginum presents instructions and warnings about appropriate appearance and behavior for sacred virgins, women who had chosen to remain celibate and dedicate their lives to Christ. While this document has generally been read for its theological and literary merits, I argue for its historical value in reflecting real people and their behavior in the Carthaginian church. If we were to turn our focus from the bishop and his theology to the work’s addressees and their daily lives, what does this homily tell us about the women in the Carthaginian church in the mid-third century? A close analysis of this document complicates the presumed packaging of women’s virginity and asceticism together: while the bishops saw the two as necessary companions, some of the virgins in the early churches did not.

Paradigma Misi dalam Syair Lagu Kolose Terhadap Pluralisme Keallahan Postmodern

Great Commission that should be the responsibility of believers becomes irrelevant in the midst of the challenges of post-modern era where everything is relative. The mission paradigm in this era began to shift, which all were motivated by post-modern culture. In this relative era, digital acceleration can directly make Christians facing global culture of the world that focuses on the universal view which state that Jesus is not the only way to salvation but one of the ways to salvation. This is because the post-modern paradigm of thinking concerning religion is no longer talking about truth but about what does someone want. Of course this is contrary to Christianity which states that Jesus is the final and the only way of salvation. This study uses a qualitative research with a descriptive approach to find out the truth in Paul’s writings in the Colossian Song which describe the pre-existence of Christ. In Paul’s writings especially in Colossians 1:15-20, is a quote from the early church confession that Paul took and used it to show about Christ who is the only God.

‘According to Right Law’: John Jewel’s Use of the Ius Antiqua in His Defense of the Elizabethan Church

Abstract In his Apology of the Church of England as well as many of his other works, John Jewel defended the orthodoxy of the Elizabethan Church on the basis of the following criteria: Scripture, the first four general councils, the writings of the Church Fathers, and the example of the primitive church.1 By emphasizing these authorities, the bishop of Salisbury also sought to impeach the Roman Church’s claim to orthodoxy by arguing that doctrines and practices which developed subsequently to the early church as defined by these criteria contradict them, thereby nullifying its charge of heresy against Protestants while simultaneously indicting the papacy itself as heretical. A question that emerges from studying Jewel’s prodigious polemical works concerns the source of this means of determining orthodoxy. Answering this question requires a close analysis of the apologist’s use of sources. This article will attempt to answer this question by arguing that this criteria for defining orthodoxy derived mainly from canon law tradition that is confirmed specifically by Gratian’s Decretum. This thesis maintains that Jewel’s criteria constituted a form of the ius antiqua with which he attacked the ius novum that provided the authoritative basis for papal supremacy, and in so doing, sought to vindicate the Elizabethan Church’s place in ancient catholic tradition.

‘The whole church is here listening’: Tracing thesensus fideliumin public discourse in the early church

AbstractThis essay forms the basis for the case that contemporary application of the concept of thesensus fideliumas a vehicle for transmitting accurate doctrine relies primarily on shifts in power structures in the first several centuries of the church. By investigating two documents depicting public theological dialogues in the presence of both clergy and laity, Origen'sDialogue with Heraclidesfrom the third century and theDialogue of Heraclianfrom the fourth century, I argue that the intersection of a widening gap between lay and clergy with a shrinking importance in public theological debate served actually to relocate thesensus fideliumfrom the efforts of powerful clergy into the lived churchly practices of the laity.

A Life of Alexander Campbell by Douglas A. Foster

Reviewed by: A Life of Alexander Campbell by Douglas A. Foster Matthew Smith A Life of Alexander Campbell. By Douglas A. Foster. Library of Religious Biography. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2020. Pp. xviii, 345. Paper, $29.99, ISBN 978-0-8028-7633-1.) Alexander Campbell (1788–1866) was a study of contradiction. A theologian who sought to restore Christianity to apostolic unity, he spent much of his time embroiled in controversy. A scourge of Catholicism and infidelity, he debated figures as diverse as John Baptist Purcell, Catholic bishop of Cincinnati, and utopian socialist Robert Owen. Both men earned Campbell's friendship, but his relationship with Protestant reformers was often quite bitter. Despite his advocacy of American democracy, Campbell was intellectually prone to "elitism and arrogance," quarreling with key allies, including fellow reformer Barton Warren Stone (p. 190). An opponent of slavery, Campbell was also an unabashed white supremacist, whose oldest son fought as a Confederate cavalry officer during the Civil War. Campbell's historical reputation is surprisingly cloudy, even within the movement he inspired. The Christian Churches (Churches of Christ, Disciples of Christ, and Christian Churches) number eight million followers worldwide, including three million in the United States. But as Douglas A. Foster observes, "many in all streams of Campbell's movement rejected the relevance of church history and the significance of any individual for shaping their beliefs and attitudes. That attitude has been responsible for a lack of historical consciousness among many members of the churches … then and today" (p. 325). Foster is a product of the tradition he describes (having taught church history for many years at Abilene Christian University), but this biography distinguishes itself from numerous hagiographies written over the years, encapsulating "principal parts of Campbell's life and thought to discover something of his significance for American Christianity and the worldwide movement that emerged from his work" (pp. xiv–xv). A Life of Alexander Campbell comprises five parts. Part 1 describes Campbell's formation, connecting his Presbyterian and Scottish Enlightenment influences to his ministry as an immigrant in the United States. Foster attributes Campbell's desire for Christian unity to his exposure to sectarianism in Ulster and to the struggles of his father, Presbyterian minister Thomas Campbell, to reconcile disparate Protestant factions. Part 2 explores Campbell's reform agenda, which centered on believers' baptism by immersion, a practice modeled on early church precedent but influenced by the Baptist churches with which he associated early in his career. Part 3, the longest in the book, explores the myriad theological and personal controversies of Campbell's career. Part 4 examines Campbell's final years as America descended into Civil War, a conflict that filled him with spiritual pessimism and mirrored his personal decline. The final, fifth section briefly appraises Campbell's legacy. A worthy addition to the Library of Religious Biography series, Foster's biography treats its subject with nuance. Some readers may tire of the minutiae of religious controversy, but these provide a useful roadmap of theological development. Though leading a powerful Christian fellowship, Campbell renounced sectarianism as a stumbling block to the millennium. Nevertheless, the label of "Campbellism" and suspicions that Campbell was carving out a [End Page 376] personal following tainted his ministry. Most damaging was his rift with Kentucky reformer Barton Stone, whose churches merged with Campbell's in 1832, but who warned Campbell against establishing "'another sectarian party … unchristianizing those who cordially embrace the Apostles' Creed'" (p. 167). To modern sensibilities, however, Campbell's views on slavery are likely more troubling. While preferring "'the prospects and conditions of the Free to the Slave states,'" Campbell claimed to "'sympathize much more with the owners of slaves, their heirs, and successors, than the slaves which they possess and bequeath'" (p. 274). To his credit, Foster does not shy away from Campbell's flaws, providing a critical portrait of this "complex, brilliant, indefatigable, arrogant, racist, aggressive, prolific leader" (p. 331). Matthew Smith Miami University Copyright © 2022 The Southern Historical Association

St. Paul, an inspiring leader of the Early Christian Communities (2 Cor 11:23-29) – Points for Reflection for Priests and Christian Leaders

St. Paul is often referred to as the most important and creative figure in the history of the early Church, as is evident from his life, works, missionary journeys and general evangelizational legacy. He was, in fact, the leading missionary of that early Christianity. But most Christians may not be fully aware of these noble facts, as Paul was also really notorious for his earlier brutal persecution of the same Church. This article aims at bringing out the laudable merits and legacy of this great apostle which remain exemplary for all Christians, especially the Christian leaders, to this day – a fact for which the Church specially celebrated the Year of St. Paul from June 28, 2008 to June 29, 2009. The methodology employed in this work is the historical-exegetical method. With the help of this method, the shining examples and general legacy of this great apostle in the early Church have been more deeply unearthed with the result that they would now become a constant and lasting encouragement for all Christian leaders, and Christians in general, as well as biblical scholars and students. It is on that note that this article, which was initially a reflection for priests and Christian leaders here in Nigeria, has now been updated and is being published for the benefit of a wider audience.

Choreographing the Dance of Dissent: Roman Catholic Womenpriests’ Claims to Authority

In June 2002, seven Roman Catholic women were ordained to the priesthood by two bishops on a boat floating on the Danube River in the presence of hundreds of spectators. Their ordinations broke with two millennia of Catholic tradition prohibiting women priests and started a global movement. Post-ordination, the women priests were excommunicated by the Vatican, yet they still identify as Catholic priests. We explored the central tension of being insiders/outsiders by examining womenpriests’ claims to authority. The thematic analysis of interviews with over one hundred womenpriests and bishops led us to note an emerging theme in their language regarding claims to authority. In this analysis, we asked: how do womenpriests claim authority in ways that differentiate them from Roman Catholic Church authority as well as in ways that clearly position them within the tradition? We found four main strategies by which they make these claims: reclaiming the history and tradition of the early church; claiming the role of the magisterium; embodying authority; and community-based sources of power and authority. We concluded that the womenpriests are engaged in a delicate choreography of the dance of dissent, positioning themselves as the change some people may want to see in Catholicism while remaining true to Catholic roots and rituals.

Pictures of Atonement: A New Testament Study by Ben Pugh

Reviewed by: Pictures of Atonement: A New Testament Study by Ben Pugh Stephen Finlan ben pugh, Pictures of Atonement: A New Testament Study (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2020). Pp. xvii + 158. Paper $23. The first thing to say about this book is that it is very approachable, coherent, and useful for both church and academic settings. [End Page 333] This is Pugh's third book in a series on atonement, and in this treatment he emphasizes Scripture. He also stresses metaphor, saying, "Metaphor, far from being a frilly, aesthetic superfluity, is in fact the way we always grasp new truths, even scientific ones" (p. xvi). Further, P.'s study "is biblical study for theological results" (p. xvii), rather than an atomistic historical-critical approach. Pugh takes on the apparent dichotomy between an early (Jesus's own) emphasis on an anticipated kingdom and a later (early church) emphasis on cross and resurrection, which has more of a here-and-now focus. He rejects C. H. Dodd's solution that the emphasis on the cross and resurrection was a way of coping with the delay of the parousia. P. argues that the Pentecost event was the source of intense here-and-now experience (p. 7). "Until Pentecost, the 'already' aspect of the kingdom had only been implicit" (p. 12). I find this to be convincing. P. takes the early Christian experience seriously. Pugh seeks to discover a chronology among atonement metaphors, to see if there is a logical development. He addresses the metaphor of "victory" and affirms that Paul did indeed teach that the death and resurrection involved a triumph, not only over "principalities and powers" but also over the powers of death, sin, the flesh, and the law (pp. 16–18). There need not be a sharp choice between the "apocalyptic Paul" and the Paul who thinks in terms of covenant and justification. Similar to victory is the metaphor that builds on images of the redemption of Israel from Egypt and on the ransoming of captives or slaves. P. shares with N. T. Wright the notion that an important image was of a needed rescue from exile. He sees the metaphor of victory as more christological (speaking of incarnation, death, and resurrection), while the metaphor of redemption "focuses on what this does for us—it is soteriological" (p. 44). Gentile ideas play a major role here; aside from Luke, "[t]he New Testament writers seem to be negotiating a compromise with Greco-Roman ideas about propitiating gods, the manumission of slaves, or the ransoming of prisoners of war" (p. 43). In the chapter "Dying and Rising with Christ," P. makes a surprising concession to historical-critical scholarship by allowing that some of Paul's statements borrow broadly from the themes of dying and rising found in the mystery religions. P.'s discussion of dying and rising shows sensitivity to the participationist experience of "renouncing self-reliance and leaning upon Christ alone" (pp. 66–67). The longest chapter deals with the most common metaphor: sacrifice. In considering NT allusions to Levitical sacrifices, P. argues that "sin offering language comes to us wrapped in allusions to Isaiah 53" (p. 83). He is thinking of the silent lamb of Acts 8:32, the healing wounds of 1 Pet 2:24, and the sin offering of Rom 8:3 (p. 102). Chapters on justification and on reconciliation demonstrate more of P.'s careful consideration of, and willingness to draw on, differing scholarly theories. One thing that is absent from P.'s book is any deep consideration of the possibility that some atonement theology is spiritually retrograde, morally inferior, or psychologically unhealthy. In a very weak argument (p. 94), he defends Anselm's propitiatory concept. He admits that some sacrificial ideas can "seem a bit sadistic," preferring to assert that the basic sacrificial idea is gift giving, which enables the NT authors to emphasize the "loving self-gift" of Jesus (p. 103). He recognizes why many scholars recoil from the penal substitutionary idea. Pugh offers a "kaleidoscopic" understanding, drawing on several different theories of [End Page 334] atonement in order to get "big fat Rachmaninovian chords" instead of the "Chopsticks" of insisting on one theory (p. 133...

1820: Dawning of the Restoration

1820: Dawning of the Restoration

Jesus en las Americas: Exploring Latter-day Saint Latinx Politics and Culture

Jesus en las Americas: Exploring Latter-day Saint Latinx Politics and Culture

The Hill Cumorah: Restoring a Sacred Site

The Hill Cumorah: Restoring a Sacred Site

A Queer Heavenly Family: Expanding Godhood Beyond a Heterosexual, Cisgender Couple

A Queer Heavenly Family: Expanding Godhood Beyond a Heterosexual, Cisgender Couple

The Shift of the Centre of Gravity of the Church from the West to the Majority World: A Response

This is a response to Hwa Yung's paper on the shift of the centre of the gravity of the church from the West into the Majority World. It reflects on the reasons why the church grew in the West, particularly in Europe, in the past and suggests what can be learned from the strengths of the Western church, as well as its weaknesses and failures. Three periods of Western church history are covered: The Early Church from AD 30 to AD 330, the sixteenth century European Reformation, and the modern missionary expansion in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and the subsequent decline of the Western church.

The African American Church House: A Phenomenological Inquiry of an Afrocentric Sacred Space

The institution of the black church in America is centered around two things: the people and their events. Very little scholarship has been documented about the physical buildings that became homes for the people and host to their events. These early church houses became the first evidence of a constructed material culture for formerly enslaved persons in America. The design and construction of black church houses provided enslaved as well as free persons of color the opportunity to physically create buildings that would become the center of African American life, beginning as early as the late 18th century and reaching to the present. Coupled with this exercise of the creation of architectural placemaking is the defining and application of the term “sacred space”.

A Fragment of the Late Aksumite or Early Zagʷe Period on the Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew

This short note presents the transcription and translation of the old fragment of a manuscript of commentary on themes from the Gospel of Matthew which was found tucked at the end of a manuscript of Nägärä Maryam (EMML 7229, fols 122r–123v). The fragment probably dates back to the late Aksumite to early Zagʷe period and is likely to be a translation of a commentary by an early church scholar. The Vorlage remains unknown.