Early Childhood Music Education Research Articles

The Role of MENC: The National Association for Music Education in Early Childhood Music Education 1980–2007

During the last one hundred years, MENC: The National Association for Music Education has provided immeasurable support for American music educators. Although a central tenet of MENC's philosophy has been to promote music education as key in the cognitive development of the very young, few researchers have documented its role in early childhood music education. Alvarez, in her doctoral dissertation, Preschool Education and Research on the Musical Development of Preschool Children: 1900 to 1980, provides comprehensive details of early childhood music education during that time period--including the role of MENC. Because the last twenty-five years remain largely unexamined, the purpose of this research was to examine the role MENC has taken in developing early childhood music education in the United States between 1980 and 2007. Examining the last quarter century has shown that MENC has supported early childhood music learning and teaching in at least two ways: (1) advocating for music education in early childhood, and (2) providing structural support through facilitating research, publication, and practice. In this paper, we will provide a brief background of the socio-political circumstances that encouraged MENC to adopt specific positions regarding music education for the very young, and describe MENC's activity associated with both categories. Music and Preschool Education Since World War II During the 20th century, social and economic changes enacted by the federal government significantly affected the nature and quality of music education for preschoolers. As the latter part of the century saw increased enrollment in preschool programs, accompanied by decreased federal funding for these services, MENC began to adopt official positions regarding early childhood music education. The increase in dual-worker families in the years following World War II meant that more childcare was needed. In order to assist children of these families, Congress proposed and enacted several financial initiatives between 1950 and 1980. One of the most significant, the Economic Opportunity Act (1964), (2) appropriated federal funding for 1,676 Head Start facilities, serving 375,842 children. (3) Between 1964 and 1978, the percentage of the 3-4 year-old population enrolled in childcare programs--including Head Start--rose from 10 percent to 30 percent for white students, and 10 percent to 40 percent for non-white students. That increase may be partially explained by a parallel increase in the number of females in the labor force according to U.S. Census reports, but the data are far from conclusive. (4) The most significant appropriation of federal funds for childcare during the latter part of the century came from Title XX of the 1974 Social Service Amendments, which appropriated more than $700 million yearly for child care and child neglect services. (5) For many states, such funds became the sole means of federally subsidized childcare available, and therefore their only way to expose children to structured music education. The funding did not last, as the economic recession of the late 1970s pressured lawmakers to use federal funding for social programs in the most efficient way, forcing them to reexamine Title XX. In 1981, the Social Services Block Grant (SSBG) replaced Title XX as the appropriations vehicle for many social services, including childcare. While the SSBG allowed individual states more freedom in determining how funds could be used, it decreased the level of authorized funding by 20 percent--from $2.9 billion to $2.4 billion--and eliminated $200 million earmarked for childcare, a trend that continued during next two decades. Federal funding for childcare and other services from the SSBG was reduced by 58 percent, from $6.626 billion in 1981 to $2.8 billion in 1994 dollars. (6) MENC Advocating Early Childhood Music Education As enrollment in early childhood music education programs increased and support funding decreased, government relations and advocacy for arts education became a necessary cornerstone of activity for MENC. …

Synchronising pedagogy and musical experiences in early childhood: addressing challenges in preschool music education in Kenya

This paper examines pedagogy in early childhood music education and the resultant learning experiences in music for children in Kenyan preschools. Two important principles proposed for the synchronisation of teaching and learning in early childhood music education are cultural relevance and developmental appropriateness. These terms are operationalised to suit the Kenyan context. The study described here examined pedagogical practices and children’s musical activities from both cultural and psychological perspectives, based on the rationale that music education should be both culturally relevant and developmentally appropriate. Results suggested that little planning was carried out prior to musical activities, and that the activities did not always benefit all the children. The results of this study may be applicable to early childhood music education in a significant number of Kenyan preschools, since the majority of preschool teachers are trained using the same curriculum countrywide, hence their approach to music education is bound to have many commonalities.

Retrieval of ‘being’ in early childhood music education

The intention of this paper is to illustrate and illuminate how my teaching and learning experiences within my own pedagogical practice hold valuable and rich data. Information hidden within these experiences possesses vitality not only for self and professional development but for efficacy also. Disclosures through reflective accounts and retrieved memories from my 29 years of teaching and learning in the field of early childhood music education, simultaneously answer and question my thinking with respect to being in education and being educated. It is a reflective and human sensitive approach challenging me to look beyond traditional learning models and teaching methods. It also implicates ‘me’ in a pedagogic understanding that demonstrates the way my practice serves those who work within it and pass through it.

Children’s Preferences for Group Musical Activities in Child Care Centres: A Cross-Cultural Study

This paper reports on a cross-cultural research study of children’s preferences for group musical activities in child care centres. A total of 228 young children aged 4–5 years in seven child care centres in Hong Kong and in the Adelaide City of South Australia participated in the study. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected via a mixed method approach. Result showed that dancing/moving was children’s most preferred musical activity in centres. Significant differences were found between children’s cultural contexts and their preferences for three activities: (1) Singing; (2) Listening; and (3) Playing instruments. Qualitative data further revealed the social phenomena of these two cultural contexts which influenced children’s preferences. Implications for the curriculum planning of early childhood music education arising from these findings are discussed.

The Power of Musical Play: The Value of Play-Based, Child-Centered Curriculum in Early Childhood Music Education

Young children learn through play.This has long been acknowledged in the writings of educational theorists dating back as far as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel and is strongly supported by current early childhood research. Play is at the heart of contemporary early childhood pedagogy, and this has led to a strong belief in the importance of an emergent, child-centered approach to curriculum. Although music educators commonly recognize the importance of making music enjoyable, music education pedagogy for young children is often teacher led and structured toward specific behavioral outcomes. Research has shown, however, that child-centered musical play can be a powerful medium for young children’s exploration of many musical elements and concepts.

Exposing Young Children to Music through the Production and Presentation of Music-Appreciation Television Programs

THIS PAPER REPORTS ON a research study of the effectiveness of a series of music-appreciation activities for young children in Hong Kong. These activities were designed using world music and were presented as part of a local early childhood television program for community interest. One-hundred-and-sixty-eight local preschool children (mean age 4.25) and their classroom teachers, from 16 childcare centres or kindergartens, participated in this study. Qualitative data was collected using individual structured interviews with both children and teachers. The data showed that these music-appreciation activities enriched children's musical experiences and teachers' musical repertoires in early childhood settings. Teachers also showed positive preferences to learn the activities using multimedia tools. Implications for the curriculum planning and teacher training of early childhood music education are discussed.

Ethnicity versus early environment: Comment on ‘Early Childhood Music Education and Predisposition to Absolute Pitch: Teasing Apart Genes and Environment’ by Peter K. Gregersen, Elena Kowalsky, Nina Kohn, and Elizabeth West Marvin [2000

Ethnicity versus early environment: Comment on ‘Early Childhood Music Education and Predisposition to Absolute Pitch: Teasing Apart Genes and Environment’ by Peter K. Gregersen, Elena Kowalsky, Nina Kohn, and Elizabeth West Marvin [2000

Reply to Henthorn and Deutsch: Ethnicity versus early environment: Comment on ‘Early Childhood Music Education and Predisposition to Absolute Pitch: Teasing Apart Genes and Environment’ by Peter K. Gregersen, Elena Kowalsky, Nina Kohn, and Elizabeth West Marvin [2000

Drs. Henthorn and Deutsch have selectively analyzed our data and omitted a key factor in their analysis. A full analysis of our data does not support their conclusions. As shown in our original report [Gregersen et al., 2001], as well as by the work of others [Baharloo et al., 1998], two factors are associated with the development of AP: (1) the age at which formal musical training is begun and (2) exposure to ‘‘fixed do’’ training before the age of 7. Therefore, any difference between the prevalence of AP among subgroups of Asian subjects must take account of these two factors. We have investigated the association of these two factors among Asians with or without an Asian childhood in our study populations. For this analysis we included only Chinese, Korean, and Japanese subjects with childhoods in Asian countries (n1⁄4 48) compared with those in the same ethnic groups who grew up in North America (n1⁄419). The age of onset of formal musical training was slightly earlier in those with childhoods in Asia (6.1 years vs. 6.4 years), but this difference was not significant (P1⁄4 0.4, Wilcoxon rank). However, as shown in Table I, there was a strikingly increased risk of exposure to early fixed do training among Asians who grew up in an Asian country, with OR1⁄4 11.79 (95% CI 1.45–95.88, P1⁄4 0.0066, Fisher’s exact test), compared with Asians spending their childhood in North America. Similar associations are observed when the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese groups are analyzed separately. The rate of early fixed do training among Caucasians (5.9%) was similar to the rate in Asians who grew up in North America (5.5%). Furthermore, a multivariate analysis among Asians fails to support a strong independent effect of Asian childhood in the development of AP when exposure to fixed do training is taken into account (P> 0.1). To the extent that such an effect can be found, it is among Koreans and not in Chinese or Japanese. However, the numbers of subjects are small in these subgroups; therefore it would require a much larger study to provide support for an independent effect of the location of childhood upbringing on the development of AP in Koreans. For those wishing to explore these data further, the primary dataset is available at http://www.nslij-genetics.org/ap/. Thus, as we stated in our original report [Gregersen et al., 2001], a full data analysis reveals that age of music training and exposure to fixed do training before age 7 are the only factors that strongly predict

Looking Back, Looking Forward: A Report on Early Childhood Music Education in Accredited American Preschools

This investigation is an examination of musical practices, musical preparation of teachers, and music education needs as reported by early childhood professionals in the United States. Quantitative and qualitative data were gathered via a survey mailed to a random sample drawn from the database of preschool centers accredited by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). The survey was based on criteria in the MENC national standards for pre-K music (1994b) and Opportunity-to-Learn Standards-PreK Music (1994a). Returned surveys (n = 293) reflect diversity of teacher preparation in music, how and why music is used in the early childhood curriculum, and what the music education needs are in these centers. Recommendations are offered to those concerned with the music education needs of young children and their teachers.

Inclusion of Technology Resources in Early Childhood Music Education

Inclusion of Technology Resources in Early Childhood Music Education

Seen but Not Heard: Young Children, Improvised Singing and Educational Practice

In this article the author suggests that the persistence of a ‘performance model’ of early childhood music education has detracted attention from children's spontaneous musical activity. The article focuses on one dimension of children's spontaneous musicality: improvised singing. Descriptions of short episodes taken from two periods of observation, the first in a day-care setting among two- and three-year-olds and the second in a nursery among three-year-olds, provide examples of different kinds of improvised singing and how they are integrated into physical movement, and play with objects and malleable substances such as sand and water. The descriptions move into detailed discussion which draws attention to the way in which, as they play, the children's singing represents one mode blended among many and gives insight into time-based processes. The author goes on to suggest that these time-based processes support ways of engaging, either with material things or in interacting with others. The article contains a number of propositions for the benefits which might accrue from a reconsideration of singing in early childhood education.

Paul Madaule on listening and early childhood music education

Paul Madaule on listening and early childhood music education

Paul Madaule on listening and early childhood music education

Paul Madaule on listening and early childhood music education

Music cognition in early infancy: infants’ preferences and long-term memory for Ravel

Listening preferences for two pieces, Prelude and Forlane from Le tombeau de Couperin by Maurice Ravel (1875-1937), were assessed in two experiments conducted with 8-month-old infants, using the Headturn Preference Procedure (HPP). Experiment 1 showed that infants, who have never heard the pieces, could clearly make a distinction between the Prelude and Forlane when the latter are played in multiple (i.e. orchestral) but not single (i.e. piano) timbres. In Experiment 2 infants were exposed repeatedly to one of the two piano pieces over a 10-day period. Concurrent with previous studies, results suggested that babies can recognize a familiar piece after a 2-week delay. Implications for early childhood music education are outlined at the end of the article.

Looking Back, Looking Forward: A Report on Early Childhood Music Education in Accredited American Preschools

Looking Back, Looking Forward: A Report on Early Childhood Music Education in Accredited American Preschools

Un estudio de la efectividad de los programas de apreciación musical por TV para niños pequeños en Hong Kong

This paper provides a preliminary report of a small-scale research examining the effectiveness of a series of Music Appreciation segments of “Pre-school: Learn to Fly”—a locally designed and produced early childhood TV program in Hong Kong. Four aspects of young children’s musical development were studied: 1) musical exposure; 2) attention span; 3) response to music; and 4) musical memory. The findings enrich local understanding of early childhood music education and media, and provide more information for the production of the next series from late 2004.

Music Learning Theory and Audiation: Implications for Music Therapy Clinical Practice

ABSTRACT: Early childhood music educators use music learning theory to facilitate musical development in their students. For music therapists, an understanding of music learning theory is an entry-level competency. However, there are several different music learning theories (Buttram, 1996), and the lack of current research makes it difficult to determine which theory is being taught and in how much detail. In addition, although each of these models may offer a vocabulary for describing musical events, experiences, or processes, it is difficult to conclude, in the absence of research, that any one vocabulary is being used, or that all music therapists are using a similar vocabulary. This paper provides an overview of music learning theory as developed by Gordon (1971, 1989, 1997a, 1997b) and more specifically, audiation, and the types and stages preparatory audiation. The paper considers the model's distinctively musical vocabulary and implications for music therapy clinical practice. Music learning theory has been a focal point of early childhood music education and multiple models have emerged (Buttram, 1996). An understanding of music learning theory is an entry level competency for music therapists (American Music Therapy Association, 1 999), and it is as essential to a music therapist's knowledge base as is an understanding of other developmental models such as those of Piaget, Erickson, or Maslow. Previous research has suggested that there are distinctive differences in the music therapy curriculum across academic institutions (Jensen & McKinney, 1990; Maranto, 1989; Petrie, 1993; Reuer, 1987). An update of that data is beyond the scope of this paper, and thus, it is difficult to determine the depth or breadth of attention (Bruscia, 1989) that is given to music learning theory in each academic institution's undergraduate music therapy curriculum. However, as noted by Wigram (2000), it is unclear from the literature that such a knowledge base or vocabulary is being applied consistently in clinical practice. In case material in the literature, one frequently encounters clear descriptions of behavioral change in clients with vague references to musical events that have led to the interpretations of change, development, improvement or insight. However, it is unclear to other music therapists, and even more unclear to other professionals, on what basis interpretations were made when there is a lack of description using musical parameters of the musical behavior which indicated the change described. (Wigram, 2000, p. 17) Moreover, the fact that there are multiple approaches to music therapy serving various populations and conditions further confounds communications among music therapists and outside of the discipline. Amidst the various models of music learning theory that were briefly described by Buttram (1996) was a stage specific model that has been developed by Gordon (1971, 1989, 1997a, 1997b).This model offers a distinctive musical vocabulary based on an understanding of musical processes that reflect behavioral, biological, communicative, developmental, psychological, and social experiences. An understanding of Gordon music learning theory could facilitate clinical practice in the following areas: 1. Recognizing developmental levels as they are related to musical ability, process, or progress. 2. Providing a musical vocabulary from which to describe musical experiences that occurred and translating those musical experiences into psychophysiological progress. 3. Providing a musical framework or model from which to structure and implement clinical sessions. The purposes of this paper are to provide an overview of music learning theory as developed by Gordon1 (1971, 1989, 1997a, 1997b) beyond that, which may be found in typical texts or may be taught by music therapy educators. More specifically this paper will discuss the types and stages of preparatory audiation and audiation-an essential concept in Gordon's model-and consider the implications for music therapists. …

Instinctive singing: lifelong development of ‘the child within’

Inappropriate assessment of children's voices may be responsible for the high incidence in many societies of adults who label themselves ‘non-singers’. Research into the evolution of human behaviour supports the adoption of a new model of vocal development which illustrates the relationship between the instinctive and the acquired. In setting aside the potentially damaging criteria of age-related Piagetian stages, it may become possible to explain the extraordinary success of voice teachers who have transformed adult non-singers into competent performers through accessing ‘the child within’.This paper is based on a presentation given to the Early Childhood Commission of the International Society for Music Education seminar ‘Respecting the Child in Early Childhood Music Education’ held at the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa in July 1998.

Contributions to an Understanding of the Music and Movement Connection∗

Movement is acknowledged in early years music education practice as a vital medium for the development of musical learning among young children. Existing explanations of the connection between music and movement seem to fall short of providing an explanation adequate for the immediate, expressive and integrated nature of this bond. Yet the synaesthetic nature of early childhood music activity is well recognised in the observations of researchers and those who have everyday care of children. This paper aims to contribute to an understanding of the music/movement connection by relating aspects of recent research into infant‐caregiver interaction to musical development. Some alternative conceptions of the music and movement learning connection are proposed in the final section. ∗A version of this paper was presented at the Seminar “Universal and Particular Elements of Early Childhood Music Education” 15‐19July, 1995.

Early Childhood Music Education

Early Childhood Music Education