Early Buddhist Research Articles

초기불교 문헌에 나타난 자살

Suicide is a serious social problem in modern Korean society. In early Buddhism, including suicide, teachings about death are frequently offered. The agony of death is a typical existential distress, and meditation on death is an important practice. Various suicide cases appear in the scriptures and chapters of early Buddhist literature. Suicide, a type of murder, is seen as an evil act that intentionally cuts the chance of being born as a human being, and the background of suicide is the desire to die, which is the love of non-existence. Usually, humans choose to kill themselves by means of indulgence. However, saints do not commit murder intentionally, nor do they commit suicide. However, there are cases where a monk who suffers from severe illness accidentally commits suicide because he thinks that he has become Arahan, or during the selection process, he commits suicide to be born in heaven as a result of selection. The Buddha only died as Arahan when his life was cut off after committing suicide, and he did not pay for the wrongdoings of suicide. However, various examples of early Buddhist literature show that suicide is prohibited as an evil act because it is a method of murder.

The The Significance of the Early Buddhism Behind The Advancement Of the Academics In India

The Indian culture and social structure are like the most exceptional ones that have ever developed in every continent. The uniqueness of this rests in its simultaneous embodiment of both old and contemporary qualities. It is a nation that encompasses adherents of all the prominent global faiths, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism. Each of these factors exert a variable amount of effect on Indian society. Education and perfection are interconnected. Proper education is an essential prerequisite for the existence of any culture. India possesses a centuries-old system of education that is unique to its society. Throughout history, the concept of education in India has emphasised the development of a person's personality. Traditional Indian education spanned for numerous centuries, resulting in the existence of various schools during distinct time periods. The Buddhist philosophy is regarded to be one of the most esteemed ancient Indian ideologies, encompassing a multitude of beneficial principles such as religious, moral, instructive, electoral, and financial utilities. These principles hold great significance in promoting the well-being of humanity. Within the diverse range of values in Buddhism, there is a strong emphasis on the significance for learning and moral standards. Educational values in Buddhism refer to the principles which are implemented by the Buddhist System of Education in its instructional and learning methods. On the other hand, ethical principles in Buddhism pertain to moral principles advocated by Buddhist philosophy to regulate an individual's thoughts and behavior. The aim of this paper is to explore the ethical and pedagogical tenets embraced by the early adherents of Buddhism, and explore the impact of Buddhist philosophy on the education, monastic communities, and the general populace and society in ancient India.

The Sanjaya Myth: Sanjaya Belatthiputta and the Catuskoti

Respected modern scholars regard the pre-Buddhist philosopher Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta—a significant figure in the Buddhist canon—as the originator of the important classical argument- forms known as the catuṣkoṭi and catuṣkoṭi vinirmukta. We argue that the early Buddhist texts do not in fact support this view of the origin of these argument-forms; the question of their origin is open. While it is certainly true that the Pāli Sāmaññaphala Sutta and some of its parallels portray Sañjaya as deploying the catuṣkoṭi, there is nothing in these passages to suggest that he was its originator. The situation concerning the catuṣkoṭi vinirmukta is perhaps even more surprising: There is nothing in the early Pāli texts and their parallels—nor in Buddhagosa’s famous Pāli commentary on the early texts—to show that Sañjaya even deployed the catuṣkoṭi vinirmukta let alone originated it. Further, our investigations also call into question the standard portrayal of Sañjaya as an obfuscator and prevaricator. It appears he may have been a more interesting and able philosopher than the Sāmaññaphala Sutta—and modern accounts based on it—maintain.

종교성 상실의 시대, 불교교육에서 영성의 의미

[Objective] In this paper, I diagnose the de-religionization that characterizes as a result of the loss of religiosity. I will present the concepts of religiosity and spirituality in Buddhism from the perspective of early Buddhism and propose a specific methodology for Buddhist spirituality education.
 [Contents] I defined Buddhist religiosity by analyzing the Buddha's preaching declaration(傳道宣言) and the concept of kusala. Among them, the social dimension is proposed as the concept of Buddhist religiosity, and the personal dimension is proposed as the concept of spirituality. Through this, I argued that the origin of Buddhist religiosity lies in the Proclamation. And I found the specific meaning of 'Buddhist spirituality' in the concept of kusala, and revealed that 'eightfold path' is suitable as a specific method of Buddhist spiritual education.
 [Conclusions] Buddhist religiosity is related to the identity of Buddhism pursued by the Buddha, and it is the 'socialization of enlightenment' shown in the 'Proclamation'. Spirituality, as a life-changing principle, is the process of enlightenment: religiosity manifests as a function of socialization and healing, while spirituality manifests as inner wholeness.

Early Buddhist perspectives on social memorialization

Social disasters are more than just accidents or technological disasters, they are defined as disasters stemming from a variety of causes that affect human life, property, and the stability of a country or society. These disasters can take many forms, including terrorism, crime, and violence, and have a profound impact on individuals and the public. How we respond after an event, especially how we treat victims, is crucial. In cases such as the 1989 Hillsborough stadium disaster in the United Kingdom and the 2022 Itaewon tragedy in South Korea, we see a lack of adequate and sufficient response, and the nature of the problem becomes an ideological conflict. This is the result of a misperception of reality and intentional distortion of the problem, which in turn leads to social conflict and increased costs. In Buddhism, these problems can be solved through compassion and right view. Resolution is about effectively healing the aftermath of a disaster and changing our consciousness to prevent it from happening again. When the social memorialization and healing of a disaster is done properly, our society can regain stability and the victims can return to their daily lives. In particular, we can effectively respond to social disasters through four immeasurable states of mind based on the Four Noble Truths.

Pyrrho’s Buddha on Duḥkha and the Liberation from Views

Abstract This article presents a rereading of Buddhist scriptures from the Pāli Nikāyas in the light of Christopher Beckwith’s 2015 theory that Pyrrho professed early Buddhist ideas. This changes, above all, how we read one of the central terms in Buddhism, dukkha/duḥkha (usually “suffering,” now “unreliable” or “precarious”). I argue that many scriptures make better sense with Pyrrho’s reading and, moreover, that it reveals a depth of wisdom in many otherwise obscure passages in early Buddhist teachings. Through an exploratory, hermeneutic method, the article suggests a reconceptualization of Buddhist scriptures and philosophy in the light of Pyrrho.

SYMBOLS ENGRAVED ON BUDDHIST PARASOL: SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MATHURA MUSEUM

After the creation of the universe, the practice of consecration of statues and symbolic representation of gods-goddesses and nature as divinity began in civilizations across the world; proving its continued existence and practice across human history. These symbols serve the multiple purposes; from being an emblem representing the concept of religious faith, notions and beliefs in the psyche of the devotees to representing the desire for glory, protection and good fortune. These symbols communicate complicated human emotions through symbolic language in the simplest ways. From the prehistoric times to the contemporary age these symbols can be traced across the human civilizations with some variations in its physical form. These variations sometimes translate differently across religions and sometimes their expressions carry certain similarities. We find such instances in the iterations of some Buddhist symbols, when worshipping the idol of Gautama Buddha was prohibited in Pre-Sectarian Buddhist age. As a result, initially Lord Buddha was represented through the consecration of religious symbols. Gradually with the passage of time, due to cultural assimilation and the domination of Hinduism, Buddhism (Mahayana sect) came closer to Hinduism. We find early Buddhist sculptures in open natural spaces as the consecration of the statue of Gautama Buddha preceded the construction of temples. To protect these statues from Sun and Rain, these statues were soon covered by various forms of parasol like canopies (Umbrella) to the upper part of the idol as a unique feature on the upper side of the idol marking the influence of Kushan period. These parasols are engraved with various symbols like: Mangal Kalash, Swastika, Conch, Shrivatsa, Lotus, etc. The specimens of these parasols can be found protected in Mathura Museum. This paper studies the meaning of artistic and symbolic foundation of these engraved symbols.

The Thread, the Loop and the Dependent Origination – In and Beyond Linear Time (Ancient India)

The present study traces and analyzes the ideas of linear time as depicted in some of the texts of the Ṛgveda, the Atharvaveda, the Kauṣītakibrāhmaṇa and the Mahābhārata, and as presented in the texts of early Buddhism. From the thread of fate, which is the path of man, narrative, identity, through the web woven by day and night or by the two goddesses of fate, through the web of sacrifice, to dependent origination in early Buddhism, all these images and ideas are closely related with the notion of linear time. To go beyond this linear time, beyond the notion of LIFE IS A JOURNEY, is a penetration into the unspeakable, “into” the world beyond, “into” freedom.

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 4: Mindfulness of Breathing

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 4: Mindfulness of Breathing

In that very body, within that very dream

The first part of the paper briefly outlines the role of dreams in early Buddhism and their importance in establishing the continuity of the whole tradition, before presenting in the second part entirely new aspects of dreams in the Buddhist eremitic tradition, influenced by the Tantric spiritual horizon, in particular by a transformed concept of the body. The central part of the paper follows an analysis of the soteriological technique of dreaming (Tib. rmi lam) in the tradition of Buddhist yogis and yoginīs, based on the fragments of mahāsiddha Tilopa (Ṣaḍdharmopadeśa), Gampopa’s commentaries, collected in the treatise Dags po'i bka' 'bum, and findings from studies on Buddhist eremitic tradition in Ladakh in the region of the Indian Himalayas. The four stages of dream yoga are also highlighted in relation to other psychophysical soteriological techniques (the six dharmas, Skrt. ṣaḍdharma, Tib. chos drug). The philosophical and soteriological foundations of dream yoga are presented on the basis of the doctrine of consciousness in the yogācāra school, highlighting in particular the three modifications of consciousness presented by Vasubandhu. The last part the paper outlines the significance of training in the dreaming technique in the very process of dying that leads to the unconditioned state beyond life and death, nirvāṇa.

The Somaesthetics of Heaviness and Hara in Zen Buddhist Meditation

Breath is a grounding phenomenon present in many forms of Buddhist meditation. In traditional Buddhist meditations (including ānāpānasati and vipassanā), the practitioner observes the breath, surveys various physical and mental phenomena, and from there realizes that suffering (duḥkha) is not ultimately binding (and along the way, they may experience the nonduality of body and mind). Similarly, the seated meditation practice (zazen) deployed by Rinzai Zen begins with attention to breath, refines one’s attention to psycho-physical sensations, and fosters a realization of mind-body unity that enables the practitioner to face duḥkha. But this form of Zen recasts the respiratory philosophy of early Buddhism in some important respects. This paper explores how these adaptations take place in terms of an explicitly somaesthetic orientation. Emphasizing the postural form of the body, the capacity to sense the pull of gravity, and the performance of breathing from the hara (lower belly), zazen seeks to awaken the somatic body by transforming the weight of suffering into nondual, vital energy.

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 5: Dimensions of Mindfulness

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 5: Dimensions of Mindfulness

Notes on the Fo yi jing 佛醫經 T793


 
 
 The Fo yi jing 佛醫經 T793, a short text, discusses physical and mental health, presenting its content as the teachings of the Buddha. The Taishō presents the text as translated by Zhu Lüyan 竺律炎 and Zhi Qian 支謙 . We survey bibliographic records to propose that this attribution is unreliable. Using computer assisted analysis, we locate passages in the text possibly borrowed from early Chinese sources, among them most notably An Shigao’s 安世高 Jiu heng jing 九橫經 T150A(31) . These findings indicate that T793 was probably compiled in China on the basis of various sources. We also find that some basic early Buddhist teachings, such as the four nutriments (āhāra) and rules regarding the eating of meat, are misunderstood or misrepresented in T793 . Taking into account some terms and phrases in T793 that occur more frequently in translations in the Western Jin period, we suggest that T793 is likely a compilation made between the late third and early fourth centuries. It is thus probably one of the earliest extant Chinese compositions of this kind.
 
 

<i>Visions of the Buddha: Creative Dimensions of Early Buddhist Scripture</i>, by Eviatar Shulman

Visions of the Buddha: Creative Dimensions of Early Buddhist Scripture, by Eviatar Shulman. Oxford University Press, 2021. 274pp. Hb £64.00. ISBN-13: 9780197587867.

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 1: The Immeasurables

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 1: The Immeasurables

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 3: The Establishments of Mindfulness

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 3: The Establishments of Mindfulness

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 2: Nondual Mindfulness

Early Buddhist Meditation, Part 2: Nondual Mindfulness

The Pleasure of Not Experiencing Anything: Some Reflections on Consciousness in the Context of the Early Buddhist Nikāyas

The Nibbānasukha-sutta contains Sāriputta’s statement that the pleasure (sukha) of nibbāna lies in the fact that nothing is experienced (vedayita). This statement may be seen as complementary to the proclamation in the Kaḷāra-sutta that all that is experienced is unpleasant (dukkha). In this paper, I attempt to reconstruct the ideas serving as a philosophical backdrop to these radical and seemingly counterintuitive claims. I use a comparative and interdisciplinary approach, re-examining several key Nikāya passages, as well as drawing on modern cognitive science and philosophy of mind. I suggest that vedayita and the closely related concept of the five khandhas (and in particular viññāṇa) refer to various aspects of the type of consciousness whose content is phenomenal, introspectable, reportable and may be integrated into memory. I suggest that such consciousness is not a constant feature of our being engaged in the world and that its absence does not entail insentience or being incognizant. I hypothesize that a relatively low frequency of occurrences of such consciousness in the states known as absorption or flow contributes to their pleasurable nature and the altered sense of the passage of time and selfhood. I attempt to explain how the presence or absence of such consciousness is related to the states of dukkha or sukha, with particular focus on the role played by saṅkhāra. I also discuss the limits of introspection as a means of understanding what exactly makes experiences pleasurable or painful, and consider the possibility of non-introspectable forms of pleasure. In conclusion, I suggest that psychological transformation in early Buddhism is connected with a radical change of perspective, which involves no longer identifying with one’s own consciousness.

Early Buddhist Wisdom Literature: The “Book with Verses” (Sagāthāvagga) of the Saṃyutta nikāya

The Sagāthāvagga, the Book with Verses, and especially its third chapter, the Kosala-chapter (Kosala Saṃyutta), is presented here as a collection of early Buddhist wisdom literature. As the first book of the Pāli Saṃyutta-nikāya, the Book with Verses seems as an anomaly—the other four books contain some of the denser articulations of early Buddhist philosophy in the canon. Thus, scholars question whether the first book, which normally introduces verses with stories, is a real part of the collection. Scholars are also inclined to assume that the verses are the heart of the text and have shown less interest in the work’s compelling literary style. This article has three aims: First, it shows how the book, and most distinctly its third chapter, is a form of wisdom literature, with protagonist King Pasenadi of Kosala being comparable to wisdom-kings like King Solomon or Alexander the Great, and anticipating the classic Buddhist wisdom-king Aśoka. Second, it shows how this collection was designed for a performance by storytellers or preachers, suggesting that this is a feature of the Buddhist genre of prose that introduces verses. Third, it demonstrates the organic connection between the first book and the other books of the Saṃyutta.

Buddhism in Agrarian Society of Rural Bengal: Perspectives of Belief Systems with a Focus on Ritual and Deities

Buddhism was the State Religion of Bengal at least for more than four hundred years between mid of 8th century and 12th century during the Pala reign in Bengal. In the 2011 Indian census, the percentage of Buddhists in West Bengal was 0.31% while in Bangladesh less than 1% of the total population is now a follower of Buddhism. Most of the Buddhists were converted to Islam during the Sultanate rule in Bengal while Hinduism silently took over many of their shrines and deities. This paper is an attempt to revisit the cultural landscape of early Buddhism in Bengal along with a focus on the elements of Buddhist culture in folk life applying cultural geographical methodologies and examining the presence of Buddhist rituals and deities in agrarian society in sublime form. A literature review was followed by extensive fieldwork during festivities of the shrines of Hindu deities having a connection with early Buddhism of Bengal. Along with participant observation during ritualistic practices, interviews, and focus group discussion methods have been applied involving stakeholders to obtain qualitative data for analysis. The results reveal the various manifestations of the interplay between the process of universalization and parochialization in the dynamism of the evolving belief system of an apparently Non-Buddhist folk society of the present day, the root of the culture of which was exclusively Buddhist.