Early Academic Skills Research Articles

Early school readiness predictors of grade retention from kindergarten through eighth grade: A multilevel discrete-time survival analysis approach

The literature on predictors and effects of grade retention is vast. Known predictors of grade retention include gender, ethnicity, poverty, parental education, and academic skills. The subsequent effects of grade retention are hotly debated; however, many studies have shown grade retention to be detrimental to the student. The current study used a multilevel discrete-time survival analysis to investigate when grade retention is most likely in addition to whether school readiness predictors influenced grade retention at both the child- and school-level above and beyond background and demographic factors using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Kindergarten Cohort. The results suggested that grade retention was most likely by third grade. Importantly, results indicated that school readiness predictors, specifically low early academic skills (i.e. reading, math, and general knowledge skills), were the strongest predictors of grade retention. When school readiness predictors were controlled for, within schools, variables previously shown to be risk factors (e.g. ethnicity and language spoken at home) were protective factors, underscoring the importance of including school readiness factors when studying grade retention and examining school- and child-level effects.

Mobile and interactive media use by young children: the good, the bad, and the unknown.

The use of interactive screen media such as smartphones and tablets by young children is increasing rapidly. However, research regarding the impact of this portable and instantly accessible source of screen time on learning, behavior, and family dynamics has lagged considerably behind its rate of adoption. Pediatric guidelines specifically regarding mobile device use by young children have not yet been formulated, other than recent suggestions that a limited amount of educational interactive media use may be acceptable for children aged <2 years.1 New guidance is needed because mobile media differs from television in its multiple modalities (eg, videos, games, educational apps), interactive capabilities, and near ubiquity in children’s lives. Recommendations for use by infants, toddlers, and preschool-aged children are especially crucial, because effects of screen time are potentially more pronounced in this group. The aim of this commentary is to review the existing literature, discuss future research directions, and suggest preliminary guidance for families. ### Educational Value Although well-researched television programs such as Sesame Street or Blue’s Clues can promote early academic skills in preschool-aged children, children <30 months cannot learn from television and videos as they do from real-life interactions.2 Interactive media, on the other hand, allow for contingent responses to children’s actions and thus may facilitate more retention of taught material. For example, socially contingent media (ie, with appropriate content, timing, and intensity) such as videophone apps are just as effective as real-life encounters in teaching language to 24 month olds,3 but otherwise, published research on whether infants and toddlers can learn from interactive screens is scant. Promising research suggests that interactive media such as learn-to-read apps and electronic books (e-books) may increase early literacy … Address correspondence to Jenny S. Radesky, Boston Medical Center, Vose 4, 88 E Newton St, Boston, MA 02118. E-mail: jenny.radesky{at}bmc.org

Quality of Childcare and School Readiness of Children in Poverty: A South Korean Study

The present study investigated the associations of two childcare variables (quality of childcare and years of childcare exposure) with school readiness of 5-year-old children living in poverty. Quality of childcare practices of 27 centers in metropolitan low-income communities of South Korea was evaluated, and 189 children from absolute poverty households enrolled in the centers were tested in three areas (learning-related social skills, story comprehension abilities, and fine motor skills). This study found unique associations between quality of childcare and early academic skills of children in poverty. The quality of childcare practices at the centers where children enrolled at the age of 5 was positively associated with their learning-related social skills, story comprehension abilities, and fine motor skills. Links were not found between duration of ECEC exposure and either learning-related social skills or fine motor skills. In story comprehension, children with less than one year in ECEC showed lower abilities than did children with 1–3 years in ECEC; however, no difference in abilities was found between children with less than 1 year in ECEC and children with over 3 years in ECEC. This implies that ECEC experience from infancy is not consistently linked to higher academic skills at the age of 5.

RELIABILITY AND STRUCTURAL VALIDITY OF THE TEACHER RATING SCALES OF EARLY ACADEMIC COMPETENCE

Currently, there are few strengths‐based preschool rating scales that sample a wide array of behaviors believed to be essential for early academic success. The purpose of this study was to assess the factor structure of a new measure of early academic competence for at‐risk preschool populations. The Teacher Rating Scales of Early Academic Competence (TRS‐EAC) includes two broad scales (Early Academic Skills and Early Academic Enablers) and was completed by 60 teachers for 440 children enrolled in Head Start and public preschool classrooms. Evidence from two exploratory factor analyses supported a five‐factor solution for the Early Academic Skills Scale (Creative Thinking, Critical Thinking Skills, Numeracy, Early Literacy, and Comprehension) and a five‐factor solution for the Early Academic Enablers Scale (Approaches to Learning, Social and Emotional Competence, Fine Motor Skills, Gross Motor Skills, and Communication). TRS‐EAC scores also demonstrated good to excellent reliability and were related to children's performance on direct measures of early academic skills.

Kaufman Erken Akademik ve Dil Becerileri Araştırma Testi’nin 61-72 Aylık Türk Çocuklarına Uyarlanması

The aim of this research is s to adapt and apply t the Kaufman Survey of Early Academic and Language Skills (K-SEALS) to Turkish children in the city of Ankara. In the study, a descriptive screening model was used. The population of the study consisted of children who showed normal developmental characteristics and who were enrolled at public preschools. These public preschools were located in the central districts of Ankara under the auspices of the Ministry of National Education. The stratified sampling method was used for the study, and the sample consisted of 423 children aged 61 to 72 months. Validity and reliability studies were conducted based on the data provided by the adaptation of the K-SEALS test. Accordingly, ten items that were found to be inadequate in distinguishing language and academic skills among individuals were removed. The results of a confirmatory factor analysis showed that the majority of the items suggested that the one-dimensional factor structure of a combination of Early Academic and Language Skills was generally found to represent a one-dimensional factor structure. Kuder Richardson (KR-20) values were evaluated for the reliability of the test scores in the applied groups. The fact that KR-20 values were found to be between .852 and .982 revealed that the internal consistency of the test was high; furthermore, test-retest values were found to vary between .783 and .939 which indicated that the test had a consistent structure over time. Therefore, the results of the K-SEALS were considered to be valid and reliable for the Turkish children in our sample.

School readiness of children from immigrant families: Contributions of region of origin, home, and childcare.

Children from immigrant families make up a growing proportion of young children in the United States. This study highlights the heterogeneity in early academic skills related to parental region of origin. It also considers the contributions of early home and nonparental care settings to the diversity in early academic performance. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B; N ≅ 6,850), this study examines associations between parental region of origin and children’s math and reading skills at age 5. It also considers whether home and nonparental care environments are pathways through which parental region of origin relates to academic achievement. There was significant heterogeneity in children’s early reading and math skills related to parental region of origin. Children of Indian Asian and East Asian/Pacific Islander parents outscored children of native-born White parents and every other immigrant subgroup. Children of Mexican and Central American/Spanish Caribbean parents performed below other immigrant subgroups and native-born White children. Differences in child, socioeconomic, and family characteristics largely explained relations between parental region of origin and early academic skills. Indirect effects of early home environments and nonparental care played a modest but important role in explaining variability in academic skills related to region of origin.

The role of early childhood settings for 4–5 year old children in early academic skills and later achievement in Australia

Formal early childhood education programs have been shown to promote the early academic skills of young children. However, the academic benefits acquired through program attendance fade quickly in the early elementary school years. Using a nationally representative sample of Australian children, we describe the programmatic and teacher differences between different types of formal early childhood programs for children between 4 and 5 years old—pre-year 1, school-based preschool, standalone preschool, and center-based child care. We examine the child and family background characteristics that are correlated with selection into different settings and how these settings are associated with children's early academic skills and on their subsequent achievement. We focus on understanding if there are differential academic benefits accrued from each program type and whether or not these benefits persist into the early elementary school years. Results indicate that maternal employment and economic disadvantage are correlated with program participation and that pre-year 1 and preschool teachers have higher qualifications. Results also show that children who attended a pre-year 1 program held an initial, significant advantage in early academic skills compared to children enrolled in center child care. Center child care was associated with higher early math skills than preschools. Children who did not attend any early childhood programming lagged behind their peers in school readiness skills. By middle childhood, all the early skill advantages had disappeared, showing rapid fadeout of academic benefits acquired from these specific types of early childhood programs. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Early Arithmetic, Reading, and Learning Indicators (EARLI)

Despite growing interest in early intervention, there are few measures available to monitor the progress of early academic skills in preschoolers. The Early Arithmetic, Reading, and Learning Indicators (EARLI; DiPerna, Morgan, & Lei, 2007) were developed as brief assessments of critical early literacy and numeracy skills. The purpose of the current study was to examine the factor structure of the EARLI probes via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in a sample of Head Start preschoolers (N=289). A two-factor model with correlated error terms and a bifactor model provided comparable fit to the data, although there were some structural problems with the latter model. The utility of the bifactor model for explaining the structure of early academic skills as well as the utility of the EARLI probes as measures of literacy and numeracy skills in preschool are discussed.

Family income and early achievement across the urban–rural continuum.

Rural and suburban children account for the majority of poor children in the United States. Yet, most research examining poverty's associations with child development is focused on urban samples. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (N ≈ 6,600), this study examines whether the form and magnitude of income's relationship with early achievement differ across the urban-rural continuum. Results suggest that there are urbanicity-related differences in the functional form of the association between income and early achievement, with nonlinear associations in urban and suburban areas and a linear relationship in rural areas. The magnitude of the association between income and early reading and math skills also differs across the urban-rural continuum, such that income increases are related to the greatest improvements in early academic skills in large urban areas and only slight improvements in rural areas.

Longitudinal associations among interest, persistence, supportive parenting, and achievement in early childhood

This study investigates two facets of children's school readiness: interest in new cognitive tasks (interest) and persistence in task completion (persistence). Little attention has been paid to the early development of these learning behaviors, although they might prove susceptible to intervention even before school entry. Using data from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, a sample of low-income children (N=1771) was followed to model bidirectional associations among interest and persistence and maternal supportive parenting between ages 1 and 3, and estimate associations between children's interest and persistence at age 3 and their academic skills at age 5. Results indicate that maternal supportive parenting influences children's interest and persistence more strongly and consistently than interest or persistence influences parenting, and that interest but not persistence transacts with parenting over time. Interest and persistence were equally predictive of children's early academic skills. Findings affirm that both interest and persistence during toddlerhood predict children's academic standing at school entry.

Early academic skills and childhood experiences across the urban–rural continuum

The urban–rural continuum provides unique contexts for development. Differences in access to resources and childrearing norms and practices in urban, suburban, and rural areas may be linked to disparities in early achievement. Yet, few studies examine associations between urbanicity and children's early academic skills. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (N≈6050) this study examined differences in academic skills at kindergarten entry across large urban, small urban, suburban and rural areas. Additionally, it considered whether home environments and child care experiences explained disparities in early achievement. Results showed that children in large urban and rural areas entered kindergarten with less advanced academic skills than children in small urban areas and suburbs. Lower achievement for rural children was partly explained by less advantageous home environments and increased use of home-based, rather than center-based, preschool. Parents living in large urban areas had less knowledge of child development, which helped explain their children's lower achievement.

The family, neuroscience, and academic skills: An interdisciplinary account of social class gaps in children’s test scores

Current explanations of social class gaps in children’s early academic skills tend to focus on non-cognitive skills that more advantaged children acquire in the family. Accordingly, social class matters because the cultural resources more abundant in advantaged families cultivate children’s repertories and tool kits, which allow them to more easily navigate social institutions, such as schools. Within these accounts, parenting practices matter for children’s academic success, but for seemingly arbitrary reasons. Alternatively, findings from current neuroscience research indicate that family context matters for children because it cultivates neural networks that assist in learning and the development of academic skills. That is, children’s exposure to particular parenting practices and stimulating home environments contribute to the growth in neurocognitive skills that affect later academic performance. We synthesize sociological and neuroscience accounts of developmental inequality by focusing on one such skill—fine motor skills—to illustrate how family context alters children’s early academic performance. Our findings support an interdisciplinary account of academic inequality, and extend current accounts of the family’s role in the transmission of social inequality.

The role of selective attention on academic foundations: A cognitive neuroscience perspective

To the extent that selective attention skills are relevant for academic foundations and amenable to training, they represent an important focus for the field of education. Here, drawing on research on the neurobiology of attention, we review hypothesized links between selective attention and processing across three domains important to early academic skills. First, we provide a brief review of the neural bases of selective attention, emphasizing the effects of selective attention on neural processing, as well as the neural systems important to deploying selective attention and managing response conflict. Second, we examine the developmental time course of selective attention. It is argued that developmental differences in selective attention are related to the neural systems important for deploying selective attention and managing response conflict. In contrast, once effectively deployed, selective attention acts through very similar neural mechanisms across ages. In the third section, we relate the processes of selective attention to three domains important to academic foundations: language, literacy, and mathematics. Fourth, drawing on recent literatures on the effects of video-game play and mind-brain training on selective attention, we discuss the possibility of training selective attention. The final section examines the application of these principles to educationally-focused attention-training programs for children.

Biological and Environmental Factors as Predictors of Language Skills in Very Preterm Children at 5 Years of Age

Language problems are thought to occur more frequently in very preterm children compared with healthy term born children. The primary aim of this study was to examine the contributions of biological and environmental risk factors to language outcomes in very preterm children at 5 years of age. A cohort of 227 very preterm infants (birth weight <1250 g or gestational age <30 weeks) were recruited at birth and followed up at 2 and 5 years of age (corrected for prematurity) in a prospective, longitudinal study in Melbourne, Australia. Outcomes at 5 years of age were the Expressive and Receptive Language Scales from the Kaufman Survey of Early Academic and Language Skills. A range of hypothesized biological and environmental factors identified from past research were examined as predictors of language outcomes at 5 years of age using linear regression models. Lower maternal education and poorer communication skills in the child at 2 years of age were predictive of poorer expressive and poorer receptive language outcomes at 5 years of age. Lower expressive language scores were also associated with the presence of moderate-severe white matter abnormalities on neonatal magnetic resonance imaging. Results support the role of both biological and environmental factors in the evolution of language difficulties and highlight the need to consider these factors in the follow-up of preterm infants.

Language delays of impoverished preschool children in relation to early academic and emotion recognition skills

Prevalence of delayed language vs. normative language was examined in impoverished preschool children. On the basis of vocabulary, syntax comprehension, and syntax expression, 336 4-year-olds attending Head Start preschools in the US were assigned to five language status categories. A majority of these children living in poverty demonstrated clinically significant language delays, and this held true equally for Majority (White European) and Minority (here African-American or Latino) children. Many of the children living in poverty showed delays that place them in Strong Delay or Moderate Delay status rather than Mild Delay status. Moreover, as children’s language status declined from High Language to Low-Average Language to the three increasingly strong language delays, their academic and socioemotional skills decreased systematically. This conclusion holds, with large effect sizes, for emotion recognition skills, basic mathematics, print knowledge, phonological elision, and phonological blending. Given the high prevalence of language delays and the strong associations of language status levels to multiple skills considered important for school readiness, it may be advisable in intervention, education, and clinical service programs to expand the use of high-quality and high-quantity language teaching and language therapy procedures. Further, it is suggested that making more adjustments in instruction to current levels of language mastery by children in poverty might facilitate instructional effectiveness in most preschool skill domains. These recommendations are discussed in relation to dynamic systems theory and prior intervention studies.

A Plan to Facilitate the Early Career Development of Minority Scholars in the Health Sciences

The EXPORT Health Project at the Center for Minority Health, University of Pittsburgh, partnered with the Center of Excellence in Minority Health at Jackson State University to design and present a Summer Research Career Development Institute (SRCDI) in 2005 and 2006. The goal of the SRCDI was to enhance the early academic career survival skills of postdoctoral and junior faculty investigators doing research on minority health disparities. Institute organizers seek to increase the number of minority investigators who are successful in securing faculty appointments and independent funding through federal agencies. The Pittsburgh Jackson State University SRCDI admitted a total of 55 (26 in 2005 and 29 in 2006) outstanding postdoctoral fellows and assistant professors from institutions across the United States. Elements of this model can be exported to other institutions to assist minority faculty in achieving their career goals.

Teacher Outreach to Families Across the Transition to School: An Examination of Teachers’ Practices and their Unique Contributions to Children’s Early Academic Outcomes

This descriptive study explored teachers’ outreach to families in preschool, kindergarten, and first grade, and its relations to children’s early growth in language, literacy, and mathematics. Teachers (n = 62) completed surveys reporting the frequency of outreach practices to families, and children’s (n = 210) early academic skills were assessed at the beginning and end of the school year. In addition, parents described their education, while teachers noted their education, experience, and number of minutes they devoted to various types of classroom instruction. Results revealed that the frequency of teacher outreach varied both across practices and across teachers. Positive associations emerged between teachers’ provision of workshops and children’s vocabulary learning, as well as between teachers’ invitations to volunteer in the classroom and children’s mathematics development, even after controlling for teacher, family, and child factors. In contrast, the frequency of teachers’ phone calls to families was inversely related to children’s vocabulary and mathematics learning. Results provide new information about the nature of teacher outreach during the school transition period and its distinct, selective contributions to important early skills.

Differentiated Instruction to Support High-Risk Preschool Learners

Differentiated instruction is a strategy for meeting the needs of diverse learners. In this article, we describe a differentiated instruction model and examine the effects on high-risk children. One hundred twenty-eight children and their teachers from 8 Head Start classrooms participated in the project. Teachers provided developmentally sequenced, tiered instruction primarily in small group formats. Children made gains on all areas assessed (vocabulary, emergent reading, alphabet knowledge, print concepts, phonological awareness, emergent math). A subgroup of higher risk children was defined as those who scored in the bottom 5th percentile on English vocabulary at the start of the school year. This higher risk group comprised 26% of the sample. Higher risk children made much larger gains on vocabulary over the course of the year than did their lower risk classmates and showed similar or slightly lower rates of change on other measures of early academic skills. Practical issues relating to the implementation of a differentiated instruction model are discussed.

Developing Short Forms of the EARLI Numeracy Measures

Currently, few measures are available to monitor young children’s progress in acquiring key early academic skills. In response to this need, the authors have begun developing measures (i.e., the Early Arithmetic, Reading and Learning Indicators, or EARLI) of preschoolers’ numeracy skills. To accurately and efficiently monitor acquisition of early skills, users require multiple short forms that are appropriate in difficulty level for young children at different points in time. In the current study, the authors used three item selection methods to create multiple short forms for two EARLI numeracy measures. The authors then compared these item selection methods on projected internal consistency and concurrent validity estimates for the resulting forms. The short forms selected by these methods did not differ significantly on either criterion and appeared to be sufficiently sensitive to measure initial and acquisition of numeracy skills over time by preschool children enrolled in Head Start.

A Longitudinal Study Exploring the Relationship of Representational Levels of Three Aspects of Preschool Sociodramatic Play and Early Academic Skills

The purpose of this study was to explore the predictive relationship between the level of symbolic representation in preschoolers' sociodramatic play and reading and mathematics abilities and rate of growth in early elementary grades for children with and without disabilities. The relationship of three aspects of sociodramatic play—symbolic agent, symbolic complexity, and symbolic substitution—were assessed. Symbolic agent scores were positively related to math achievement in the early elementary grades, but symbolic complexity was not significantly related to either math or reading abilities. Symbolic substitution was the most powerful predictor of academic abilities, as this aspect of sociodramatic play was positively related to both reading and math skills. Findings are discussed in relation to the importance of representational play that provides young children the experiences that allow them to begin to think symbolically, building the foundation for later learning.