Early 1990s Research Articles

Rupturism as a socio-cultural process in Chile in the late 1960s — early 1970s

Rupturism as a socio-cultural process in Chile in the late 1960s — early 1970s

Life skills education in secondary language classrooms: Empathy, communication and interpersonal relations

ABSTRACT Background: Life skills education (LSE) has prevailed since the early 1980s, and despite international policy ambitions, there are few indications of LSE in formal school contexts outside of education programmes. This study adds to existing literature by investigating LSE in Norway, shortly after its introduction into the 2020 national curriculum; acknowledging the value of developing students’ ability to understand and influence factors that are important for managing their own life. Objectives: The primary aim was to investigate how LSE was infused into the language subjects English and Norwegian during naturally occurring instruction in four lower secondary schools. Methods: Participants involved 11 teachers and their students across 18 classes. Using a mixed methods design, we combined quantitative and qualitative analyses of classroom video recordings (74 lessons). Analyses relied on the validated EDUCATE observation protocol and thematic analysis. Results and Conclusions: When themes relevant for LSE were included in these language lessons, they were mainly taught as subject-specific themes unconnected to LSE, while some lessons offered explicit connections to help students manage their lives. When such connections were made, the themes mainly concerned empathy, communication and interpersonal relations. The main difference between the two subjects, was the teaching of LSE relevant themes mainly through fiction in Norwegian, and by bringing current events into the English classroom, whereas multiple literacies (i.e. traditional, emotional, critical) were addressed in both subjects.

Anangula before and after: to the 50th anniversary of Soviet-American archaeological expedi-tion on the Aleutian Islands

The purpose of this work is to analyze the events in scientific life that preceded and followed the first Soviet-American archaeological expedition to the Aleutian Islands 50 years ago (1974) and the excavations of the Anangula Site, the materials of which date back to ca. 9,000 years ago. The used sources include various publications by Rus-sian and foreign authors, highlighting the key episodes of international dialogue and the stages of the formation of American studies in the Kunstkamera (St. Petersburg), the Institute of Ethnography (Moscow), and the Institute of History, Philology and Philosophy (Novosibirsk), as well as the information on the participation of Russian scientists, with reports, at major international forums, periodicals, and scientific chronicles, freely available archival data, and also records from family collections. The dynamics and forms of academic cooperation between Russian and North American archaeologists and ethnographers (exchanges of visits, conferences, exhibitions, joint projects, publications) are traced during different stages — in the 1900s–1930s, 1950s–1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. The initial period featured the interest of the American side in the study of materials from Siberia and Northeast Asia in the person of such specialists as A. Hrdlicka, F. Rainey, and W. Laughlin, and the late 1960s period — the institutional, structural, and thematic development of American studies in several scientific centers in Russia. The specifics of changes in the structure of financing, and the role of the grant system (Russian and foreign scientific foundations) since the 1990s are noted. As a result, a number of conclusions have been drawn about the regularity of the ap-pearance and implementation of the project on the Aleutian Islands, the role of Siberian researchers (A.P. Okladnikov, A.P. Derevianko, R.S. Vasilievsky) in the development of such areas as American studies and Pacific archaeology in science and education, the long-term effect of the “Anangula legacy” for the next generations of Russian and North American archaeologists, as well as about the current state of the research in the area.

A Specific Component in the US Banking System: The State of Ohio

Deregulation of the US banking system in the 1980s and 1990s led to profound changes not only in the operating conditions of credit corporations but also in the territorial structure of the industry. A particularly important role was played by the gradual lifting of the historical ban on creating interstate branch networks, which allowed the most successful banking holding companies to expand into other regions and partially displace local businesses. Among the centers from which such commercial expansion took place were Columbus, Cleveland, and other cities in Ohio, which had significant economic foundations and human resources. Ohio's share of national totals, measured by the assets of bank holding companies, rose almost continuously until 2002–2003, but then began to decline under pressure from even stronger competitors. Meanwhile, in the early 2000s, as advancements in telecommunications increasingly enabled the remote distribution of internal corporate administrative functions, Ohio became a strategic hub for holdings from other states – primarily JPMorgan Chase from New York. To this day, Ohio reflects a dual, albeit uneven, success: the state holds a significant position in its own holdings’ assets (sixth or seventh place in the US), while also maintaining a leading role in the strategic presence (at the level of key subordinate banks) of holdings from other parts of the country. For Ohio, an old industrial state that had been struggling since the 1960s with the rise of new competitors with more advanced manufacturing, the growth of the banking sector (in both aspects noted) became a key part of the state's economic restructuring and an important source of job creation.

Operation Blue Star in the History of India: 40 Years Later

Development of the Punjab crisis by the early 1980s along with separatist activities aimed at the secession of Punjab and establishment of an independent Khalistan state in the North-West of India prompted the central government headed by Indira Gandhi (1917–1984) to go to the length of sanctioning an army operation codenamed Blue Star in early June 1984. Its aim was to remove the militants headed by charismatic Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale (1947–1984) who had taken cover in the Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) complex in Amritsar. Hundreds of civilians, mostly Sikhs, fell victims to the operation Blue Star, parts of the temple complex were severely damaged, and unique manuscripts and books were destroyed in fire. In the collective memory of the Sikhs, this tragedy is sometimes interpreted as teeja ghallughara (‘third massacre/carnage’) or genocide of the followers of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism. With June approaching, every year the tragic events of 1984 become part of India’s news feed representing an important argument in the rhetoric of political parties and communities.

Pavlovian theory and the development of traditional Chinese medicine, 1949-1961.

After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the leadership of the new country carried out a political, cultural, and scientific campaign to "comprehensively learn from the Soviet Union," with the goal of rapid development on all fronts. In the realm of medicine, this had profound consequences. The hegemonic Soviet theory of physiology and psychology-Pavlovianism-became highly influential in China, first as Party Line and second as the basis for a reformed "traditional Chinese medicine". In the early 1950s, Pavlov's theory of higher nervous activity had the status of unquestioned orthodoxy. However, a disagreement between the Ministry of Health and national leader Mao Zedong led to an important shift in 1954. After that date, instead of adopting the Soviet theories wholesale, Chinese medical practitioners used Pavlovianism to shape Chinese medicine's underlying theoretical constructs. The influence of this reconstruction persists to this day, in practices thought of by the public as thoroughly Chinese, like acupuncture, holistic thinking, inner organs theory, and acupoint injection therapy.

Invasion History and Dispersion Dynamics of the Mediterranean Fruit Fly in the Balkan Peninsula

The Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann 1824; Diptera, Tephritidae), is considered one of the most important pests, infesting more than 300 species of fresh fruit and vegetables worldwide. The medfly is an important invasive species, which has spread from the eastern part of sub-Saharan Africa to all of the world’s continents in recent centuries. Currently, the medfly is expanding its geographical range to cooler, temperate areas of the world, including northern areas of Mediterranean countries and continental areas of Central Europe. We collected and analysed all the available information, including in historical records, on the phenology of the medfly in the Balkan Peninsula, to map and understand the path of invasion and spread dynamics on the northern Mediterranean coast and in Central Europe. The medfly was first recorded in the Balkan Peninsula in 1915, in the Aegean area on the island of Aigina, followed by a few records on its presence in the Peloponnese in the early 1930s and throughout the Adriatic coastal area in the 1950s; it was first detected on the Croatian coast in 1947. By 2010, the medfly had been detected along the entire Ionian coast, while the first record of its presence on the Balkan coast of the Black Sea was made in 2005. Since 2000 to date, there has been a significant increase in the frequency of medfly detections in the interior of the Balkan Peninsula, including occasional detections in areas with unfavourable climatic conditions for overwintering, which seems to be favourable for reproduction during the summer and lead to significant infestation of late ripening fruits (late summer and autumn). In the last 20 years, the medfly has spread to more northerly areas (43 to 45 degrees latitude) and has been detected at higher altitudes (>200 to 600 m). Along the Balkan Peninsula, the infestation of fruits from 25 host plant species, from 14 genera and 10 plant families, has been reported. Considering the extremely high invasiveness of the medfly and its wide distribution in several Balkan regions with different climatic conditions, we can assume that it is adapting to new climatic conditions and infesting new host plants.

Is dragging a drag or is trapping a trap? A comparison of two methods for collecting Amblyomma americanum ticks in sites near the species range boundary

The incidence of tick-borne diseases in the United States has more than doubled since the early 2000s. Research on ticks is a priority to mitigate the spread of tick-borne diseases. Thus, it is important to understand how to efficiently collect large numbers of ticks for studies of genetics, behavior, physiology, vector competence, tick repellants, and acaricides. In this study, we compared the efficiency of two methods—dragging and CO2-baited trapping—for collecting lone star ticks (Amblyomma americanum) across two distinct regions of its expanding range. We performed simultaneous dragging and trapping collections at six sites, three in Oklahoma and three in New York and New Jersey, USA. Our results demonstrate that dragging was more efficient than trapping for collecting lone star tick nymphs. However, dragging and trapping were similar in efficiency for collecting adult males and females. There were no regional differences in trapping or dragging efficiency. Additionally, we discuss material and labor costs of each method to inform researchers who need to rapidly collect as many ticks as possible with the most efficient and cost-effective method.

«Дивану луғәтит түрк» тоғрисида шуардики уйғур тилидики тәтқиқатлар

The article discusses the research of scientists of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the Uyghur language about the work of Mahmut Kashgari “Diwani Lugat-it-Turk”. This dictionary was translated into Uyghur language by a group of Uyghur scholars in the early 1980s. In 2008, on the 1000th anniversary of the scientist’s birth, the dictionary was republished with corrections, including a facsimile and an index. From 1978 to 2004 alone, 240 scientific and popular science articles were published in various publications. Considering these and more recent studies available to us, it was revealed that starting from the general content of the dictionary, different thematic groups of words (12 in total), grammatical features, poems in the dictionary, proverbs, a world map and other content were written.

Exploring mechanisms behind the increasing gender gap in adolescent psychological symptoms, 2002-2022: the role of national-level gender equality.

Internalising problems have increased considerably among adolescents in the last decades, particularly among girls, resulting in widening gender gaps. This study examined whether the gender gap in psychological symptoms increased more in more gender-equal countries in the period 2002-2022, and if so, to what extent this could be explained by changes over time in the experience of stressors (i.e. schoolwork pressure, body dissatisfaction, low classmate support) among boys and girls in these countries. National data on gender inequality (UNDP Gender Inequality Index) were combined with aggregated individual-level data from the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study (2002-2022) across 43 countries (N = 1,268,220). Absolute and relative gender gaps in psychological symptoms were regressed on survey cycle, GII and their interaction. Next, interactions of survey cycle and either schoolwork pressure, body dissatisfaction or classmate support were added to the model. Increases in the absolute and relative gender gap in psychological symptoms between 2002 and 2022 were stronger in more gender-equal countries, mainly due to larger increases in psychological symptoms among girls in these countries. Also, less favourable time trends for schoolwork pressure and classmate support were found in more gender-equal countries for boys and especially girls. The larger increase in schoolwork pressure among girls in more gender-equal countries partly explained the increased absolute gender gap in psychological symptoms in these countries. While national-level gender equality was positively associated with boys' and girls' mental health in the early 2000s, this association has become negative for girls in more recent years. The benefits of gender equality for girls' mental health may have become overshadowed by the increased experience of stressors, especially schoolwork pressure. Far from advocating that gender equality is a negative situation, these findings suggest that much work remains to achieve full gender equality, where men and women really share the burdens and stressors in everyday life.

Origins of Modernity: Plečnik and Grabrijan

The first part of this research is based on the analysis of several articles published by Dušan Grabrijan in the late 1940s and early 1950s, his book Plečnik in njegova šola (Plečnik and His School), and the analysis of Grabrijan’s teaching method rooted in Auguste Choisy’s book Histoire de l’architecture (Choisy, 1899), published as a study script. The book Plečnik in njegova šola (Grabrijan, 1968) is based on Grabrijan’s published and unpublished texts, some of which were originally written during his WWII imprisonment. It attempts to critically contextualize, evaluate, and present Plečnik’s work. The book was edited by his wife, Prof. Nada Grabrijan, and published posthumously in 1968.One of the first three of Plečnik’s graduates, Dušan Grabrijan, is the author of the Memorial to Slovenian Modernity in Ljubljana Žale Cemetery (dedicated to Ivan Cankar, Dragotin Kette, and Josip Murn, with Oton Župančič’s memorial added later, designed by his son, architect Marko Župančič), built between 1924-25 as a result of a winning student competition in Plečnik’s seminar. The memorial was commissioned and funded by Milena Rohrmann. The composition is tripartite, with a reference to Mount Triglav, consisting of three joint columns, of which Ivan Cankar is the tallest and placed in the center. The memorial follows Plečnik’s design principles.The final part of the paper will examine Plečnik’s modernity and his classical yet modern understanding of the architectural discipline, his ‘flexible classicism’ with his inventiveness, playfulness, daring upcycling, experimentation with materials, forms, and structures, all within the frame of highly developed local crafts, not industry. Indeed, the building industry only really developed after WWII in socialist Yugoslavia. Dušan Grabrijan and Juraj Neidhardt were among the first architects in the region to face the new challenges in architecture. They were trying to answer the new questions: How to connect the new role of an architect, industrialization, and new social needs with the mosaic of local cultures, contexts, and communities, and how to apply Plečnik’s human scale to the modernist architecture of the Balkans?

A pause in the weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation since the early 2010s

The current state-of-the-art climate models when combined together suggest that the anthropogenic weakening of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) has already begun since the mid-1980s. However, continuous direct observational records during the past two decades have shown remarkable resilience of the AMOC. To shed light on this apparent contradiction, here we attempt to attribute the interdecadal variation of the historical AMOC to the anthropogenic and natural signals, by analyzing multiple climate and surface-forced ocean model simulations together with direct observational data. Our analysis suggests that an extensive weakening of the AMOC occurred in the 2000s, as evident from the surface-forced ocean model simulations, and was primarily driven by anthropogenic forcing and possibly augmented by natural variability. However, since the early 2010s, the natural component of the AMOC has greatly strengthened due to the development of a strong positive North Atlantic Oscillation. The enhanced natural AMOC signal in turn acted to oppose the anthropogenic weakening signal, leading to a near stalling of the AMOC weakening. Further analysis suggests that the tug-of-war between the natural and anthropogenic signals will likely continue in the next several years.

Roles of host and environment in shift of primary anthrax host species in Kruger National Park.

Environmental and climatic factors, as well as host demographics and behaviour, significantly influence the exposure of herbivorous mammalian hosts to pathogens such as Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax. Until the early 1990s in Kruger National Park (KNP), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) was the host species most affected by anthrax, with outbreaks occurring predominantly in the dry season, particularly during drought cycles. However, the most affected host species has shifted to impala (Aepyceros melampus), with more frequent anthrax outbreaks during the wet season. This study investigates the roles of environmental variation and other host species in this shift. Temporal trends in environmental variables such as precipitation, soil moisture, temperature, and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) were analyzed in relation to anthrax occurrence (presence/ absence and counts). Additionally, correlations between host species' densities and anthrax mortalities over time were examined. Anthrax cases in 1990 were concentrated in the central and northern regions of KNP(excluding Pafuri), primarily affected kudus; while subsequent mortalities affected mostly impala and were restricted to the far north, in Pafuri. Significant correlations were found between kudu anthrax mortality and a decrease in NDVI, average temperature, SPI-6 and SPI-12 (Standardised Precipitation Index in various time intervals. Conversely, anthrax occurrence in impalas was associated with a decline in SPI-3, and temperature rise, with increased mortality during the rainy season. Elephant density correlated negatively with kudu mortality, but a positive correlation with both impala mortality and impala density. The study concludes that environmental variables and species' densities may alter the diversity and frequency of hosts exposed to B. anthracis. Climate extremes and alterations therein may exacerbate anthrax severity by modifying species susceptibility and their probability of exposure over time.

A personal account of the history of X-ray crystallography at the University of La Plata, Argentina.

Prompted by visionary political leaders and a flowering economy, the University of La Plata was founded in 1905, the third Argentinian university after the Universities of Cordoba (1613) and Buenos Aires (1821). Differing from the older universities, more prone to professional formation, the new university was oriented towards teaching and scientific research following western European academic tradition. Along with the university was created the Institute of Physics, the first of its kind in Latin America. To pursue the foundational plan, the university recruited distinguished German physicists, some of whom became the first directors. From the start, the institute became acquainted with Röntgen rays, their generation and use, initially for radiographic images and later in occasional diffraction studies. The first dedicated crystallographic X-ray diffraction laboratory was set up in the early 1970s, when it solved the first molecular structures. Soon the fascination brought about by a methodology that afforded the visualization of atoms, molecules and crystals lured the local and national physical chemistry communities. In close partnership with an equally oriented laboratory at the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil, and in collaboration with several physical chemistry laboratories from Argentina and the Latin American region, and also from Europe, we undertook studies on the crystal structures and physicochemical and spectroscopic properties of a wide range of materials, including inorganic, organic, bioinorganic, metal-organic, organic-metal, supramolecular, pharmaceutical, organic minerals and liquid crystals. The present essay is a personal account of the origin and development of structural X-ray crystallography at the University of La Plata and its impact on the scientific research of Argentina and Latin America.

The Communist Party of Thailand's education for young children in Northern Laos and Southern China

ABSTRACT Education is typically critically important for political movements, One important Communist Party of Thailand (CPT) policy was to make education accessible to the poor and disadvantaged, including upland ethnic minorities such as the Hmong and the Lua. Apart from expanding education for young adults outside of Thailand, the CPT also organized education for young children in northern Laos and southern China, near the border between the two countries. However, a dramatic shift in political alliances – and various other internal and external factors – resulted in the CPT having to withdraw from Laos in early 1979, and falling into rapid decline in the early 1980s. This article considers the primary education that the CPT provided along the Laos–China border, and the experiences of students and teachers. The circumstances of Hmong child students trapped in China during the 1980s, and their readjustment once back in Thailand, are also discussed. The CPT’s education policies are particularly useful for understanding their ideas regarding ethnicity and language, but ultimately the approach of the CPT to ethnicity and language was not radical, and did not differ much from the approach of the government of Thailand.

A forensic autopsy case of suicide using baking soda and citric acid in a bathtub.

A mixture of baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) and citric acid is used for cleaning purposes, but, in recent years, this mixture has been introduced on the internet as a method for suicide. Here, we report a case in which the two agents were mixed in a bathtub to generate carbon dioxide (CO2). A man in his early 60s was found dead in his clothes in a bathtub with a lid. Postmortem changes were somewhat progressed, but only pulmonary edema was observed, with no injuries or lesions that could have led to cause of death, and no drug toxicants detected. Empty containers of baking soda (789g) and citric acid (850g) were found at the scene. We conducted a reproduction experiment showing that CO2 reached a lethal concentration (~ 60%) within 12s, but the O2 concentration was about 10%, which is not a lethal concentration. Therefore, it is highly likely that the man died of CO2 intoxication within a short period of time and before he would have suffered asphyxiation due to oxygen deficiency. Normally, this result can only be obtained with the cooperation of an investigative agency and a large-scale reproduction experiment, but we were able to diagnose the cause of his death, including a differential diagnosis of asphyxia due to oxygen deficiency, by means of a reproduction model at 1/35 scale that could easily be performed in the laboratory.

From fertilizer to refuse: the history of human waste disposal in Shanghai, 1949–2010

Abstract As the most populous city in China, Shanghai’s human waste disposal underwent a dramatic transition between 1949 and 2010. While human waste continued to be sold to farmers as fertilizer, the authorities attempted to modernize the methods of manual removal, promoting nightsoil dump stations and vacuum trucks from the early 1970s. These new methods soon became widespread. However, urban human waste gradually lost its value as fertilizer from the late 1970s, chiefly because of the popularization of chemical fertilizers, at which point Shanghai was faced with serious human waste issues. Encountering this unforeseen shift, the municipality had to accept the reality that there were no longer rural markets for urban human waste, and that it would have to start treating human waste as refuse. In contrast to the Western model, Shanghai’s approach to modernizing human waste disposal was distinctive, having been influenced by factors beyond the city.

Low-osmolarity oral rehydration solution for childhood diarrhoea: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Oral rehydration solution (ORS) is crucial in the management of diarrhoea. Until the early 2000s, the standard formulation of glucose-based ORS with a total osmolarity of 311 mmol/L was being used for this purpose. However, due to concerns about sodium levels and cases of hypernatremia, a low-osmolarity ORS solution (LORS) with an osmolarity of 245mmol/L or less was developed to replace the standard ORS. With this systematic review, we aimed to assess the effectiveness of LORS compared to standard ORS for the treatment of acute and persistent diarrhoea. We comprehensively searched PubMed, CINAHL, the Cochrane Library, ClinicalTrials.gov, the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, and Scopus until 20 July 2023 for studies published after 1990 assessing the efficacy of LORS in acute and persistent diarrhoea in children under 10 years of age. Meta-analysis was conducted using the RevMan software. We performed log approximation for all the values for an outcome when studies reported arithmetic and geometric means per the Cochrane Handbook. We otherwise used the Cochrane Risk of Bias II tool to assess the risk of bias in individual studies, and assessed the quality of evidence using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations approach. This review was commissioned by the WHO for revision of guidelines for childhood diarrhoea. For the comparison of LORS to standard ORS in acute diarrhoea, our findings suggest that there was a significant decrease in the duration of diarrhoea (mean difference (MD) = -0.28; 95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.41, -0.15; moderate certainty of evidence), stool output (MD = -0.25; 95% CI = -0.35, -0.16; very low certainty of evidence), and ORS intake (MD = -0.18; 95% CI = -0.28, -0.07; moderate certainty of evidence) in patients receiving LORS. There was a comparable effect on the number of patients cured within five days, treatment failure, and frequency of unscheduled intravenous therapy (risk ratio (RR) = 0.77; 95% CI = 0.72, 9.38; low certainty of evidence). For persistent diarrhoea, there was a significant decrease in duration of diarrhoea (MD = -30.60; 95% CI = -48.95, -12.25), stool output (MD = -14.00; 95% CI = -26.63, -1.37), and ORS intake (MD = -21.40; 95% CI = -41.01, -1.79), while there was a comparable effect on the number of patients cured. Our findings suggest that LORS should continue to be recommended in children under the age of 10 years with acute watery or persistent diarrhoea and upholds the current WHO recommendations. PROSPERO: CRD42023438762.

För finlandssvenska unga läsare, på deras språk

For Finland-Swedish Young Readers, in Their Language: The Evaluation of Literary Multilingualism in Reviews of Finland-Swedish Young Adult Novels from the Early 2000s The article is a study of the evaluation of literary multilingualism in reviews of Finland-Swedish YA novels from the early 2000s. It investigates the evaluation of multilingualism in the literary field and, furthermore, contributes to the field of research into children’s literature reviews. The material consists of reviews of Annika Luther’s Ivoria (2005) and Brev till världens ände (Letters to the end of the world, 2008), as well as of Marianne Backlén’s Kopparorm (Copper snake, 2008), in Finland-Swedish newspapers and periodicals. The novels all feature literary multilingualism, for example instances of Finnish, specific Finland-Swedish linguistic traits, and/or multilingual slang, and these features are discussed in the majority of the reviews. With a theoretical background in literary multilingualism studies, children’s literature research, and studies of literary reviews, and by using textual analysis, the article shows that classic questions regarding literary multilingualism, authenticity, and comprehensibility, as well as different readerships, feature heavily in the material. There are also new elements to the discussion regarding the temporal durability of literary multilingualism and the age gap between author and readers. The reviewers’ evaluation of literary multilingualism is mixed; however, literary multilingualism is recognized as a valuable and multifaceted literary device in Finland-Swedish YA literature of the early 2000s.

‘A game of hare and hounds with one small terrier puffing well in the rear’: working at the birth of British silent cinema music

ABSTRACT The practice and performance of silent cinema music was an ephemeral art form that largely passed into memory with the arrival of the talkies in Britain in 1929. It had existed for two decades with the majority of Britain’s 4,500 cinemas playing up to 60 hours of music each week. As such, it provided employment for tens of thousands of musicians and entertainment for the majority of the population who were cinemagoers. But despite its ubiquity, there are no extant recordings of cinema music performances from this period, and researchers must rely on the traces left by those early practitioners; the sheet and library music that they used and annotated, the voices of the critics who described and debated the merits of cinema music and the autobiographical material of composers like William Alwyn and Louis Levy who forged their careers in cinema music from the silent period. Early instruction manuals hint at key developments in the art and language of film music, and silent cinema musicians performing today offer audiences a strong impression of the experience of live music in cinemas. Some like Neil Brand research and publish on the history of their craft. This article uses these sources to consider the development of silent cinema music in Britain from 1909 to the coming of sound in the early 1930s, focusing on the role of the cinema music director, the music publishing industries and instruction manuals that supported their craft as the language of cinema music developed in tandem with film form and style before passing into history in the rush to embrace the talkies.