Early 20th Century Research Articles

Traditional Window Designs of Kirklareli, Turkey

This article reviews the book "Traditional Window Designs of Kirklareli, Turkey", authored by Nevnihal Erdoğan and İzzet Yüksek. The book delves into the standardisation of windows found in traditional houses during the late 19th and early 20th centuries within the Kirklareli region of Turkey. Within the scope of the study, 109 houses were examined, and 20 houses were excluded because they lost their original features due to deterioration and destruction. According to researchers, urgent measures need to be taken to protect the cultural heritage in the region. In this regard, one of the book's aims is to contribute to developing new design models by archiving traditional window details. The study examined 103 traditional window types belonging to 89 houses in detail.

Human Exposure to Asbestos in Central Asian Countries and Health Effects: A Narrative Review.

The discovery of the detrimental effects of asbestos on human health came long after its widespread use, with the first scientific evidence of asbestos-related diseases emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Despite efforts to ban its use, asbestos continues to be mined and used in Central Asia (as well as in Russia, China, and other countries). To gain a deeper understanding of the situation in Central Asia, we have conducted a systematic review of scientific literature on the use of asbestos, exposure assessment, and health consequences of asbestos exposure in this geographic area. This review encompasses studies about exposure assessments, epidemiological data, and biochemical or clinical surveys conducted in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan. A total of 18 articles met the inclusion criteria, and their content is summarised in this review, which represents the first attempt to systematically examine research on asbestos and its impact on the health of workers and the general population in Central Asia countries, including literature published in Russian and English. The findings here highlighted the substantial limitations of the currently available knowledge about the impact of asbestos on health in this geographical area.

Horst Oertel and the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology: Impacts on vital statistics and the origins of the short-lived heyday of autopsies in America.

Horst Oertel was an early 20th century pathologist who began his career as an instructor of clinical pathology at the New York University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College in 1899. In 1903, he was appointed pathologist for City Hospital, an institution for indigent patients on New York City's Blackwell's Island. In 1907, Oertel became the first director of the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology, a unique new blended public-private entity based at City Hospital, that was named after a wealthy benefactor. The Institute was established to utilize the Island's indigent population to perform anatomical pathology research on diseases of aging. Oertel and the Institute thrived until 1911, when a newly-appointed New York City bureaucrat seeking patronage and graft began meddling in the Institute's governance. After press coverage of a vitriolic one-week-long exchange of charges and counter-charges between the Institute's Board of Directors and the bureaucrat, the Institute imploded. While these events meant that the Institute's tenure on Blackwell's Island would soon be coming to an end, Oertel continued to work and submit articles from the Institute throughout 1912. In May 1913, he published "The Inaccuracy of American Mortality Statistics" in American Underwriter, a bombshell article documenting low autopsy rates and high clinical diagnostic error rates at Bellevue Hospital during 1912. This, along with similar studies by Richard Cabot at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, highlighted fundamental problems in hospital care and medical education across America. Simultaneously, Oertel led the Public Health, Hospital and Budget Committee of the New York Academy of Medicine which reported that, in a selected series of large American hospitals, the autopsy percentage when compared to the number of deaths was one-eighth the rates in Canada, Great Britain, Austria, and Germany. This paper addresses how American autopsy rates skyrocketed and then plummeted again during the mid-20th century.

Frederick W. Lanchester and Aerodynamics: why an automotive engineer wrote a book for aerodynamic education

Abstract So much has been written about Frederick W. Lanchester over the years, it is hard to imagine finding something new to discuss about his efforts in aerodynamics. Many of the previous Lanchester Memorial Lectures discussed topics such as wing aerodynamics, aircraft concepts and design, unsteady rotor aerodynamics, aerodynamics research and a wide variety of other related aerodynamic topics. However, there has never been a lecture about Lanchester’s book Aerodynamics as a tool for aerodynamics education in the early 20th century. The lecture will discuss his book relative to other aerodynamics books before and after 1907, and uncover how Lanchester’s book had a very distinct, and important, contribution to make for aerodynamic education.

Long-term (1951–2023) surface changes of the Belvedere Glacier observed through aerial and UAV orthophotos

Glacier retreat is a key indicator of climate change, with significant implications for geomorphological hazards and ecosystem stability. This article focuses on the surface evolution of the Belvedere Glacier from 1951 to 2023. Using high-resolution orthophotos and manual mapping, we tracked changes in the glacier’s area and shape over time. The results show three significant phases of change: the separation of the Nordend Glacier from the Belvedere Glacier (1951–1991), the partial separation of the central accumulation basin from the debris-covered tongue (2006–2015), and the separation of the Locce Nord Glacier (2018–2021). These changes, combined with a surge event from 1999 to 2002, have significantly altered the glacier’s dynamics and accelerated its retreat. Manual mapping was accurate in areas with scarce debris cover but faced challenges in debris-covered areas due to limited image resolution, snow cover, and debris characteristics. Despite these difficulties, we observed that the glacier remained stable until the late 1990s, when it began a rapid retreat. This recent retreat is consistent with rates observed in the early 20th century. The study highlights the importance of surface mapping to quantify the areal loss and to understand broader changes in glacier structure and mass flow that drive its retreat. Our results provide key data for future studies and highlight the need for continued monitoring of Alpine glaciers in the context of accelerating climate change.

The Role of Science and Historiography in the Development of Transnational Environmental Law: A New History of the 1900 London Convention for the Preservation of African Wildlife

Abstract Historiographic studies of transnational environmental law (TEL) are increasingly relevant as scholars and practitioners search for ways in which to deliver more quickly and efficiently effective regulation that is responsive to global environmental issues. This article uses new and original archival research to better locate the Convention for the Preservation of Wild Animals, Birds and Fish in Africa (1900 London Convention) in its legal-scientific historical context. Most of the scholarship on this topic draws on historian John M. MacKenzie's groundbreaking analysis of what he called ‘the hunting cult’ and its role in the imperial advance into India, Africa, and elsewhere. When viewed through the dual lens of legal history and the history of science, the late 19th and early 20th centuries represented a period of transition during which a new science-based perspective advanced by evolutionary biologists was embraced by science-minded policymakers, and expressed in domestic law and foreign policy aimed at the preservation of endangered species and the protection of biodiversity. The 1900 London Convention is an early example of a modern TEL instrument informed by science and by values that today most recognize as being critically important and universal. The new history in this article also resonates as an example of how polarizing political narratives can delay law reform and the importance of maintaining focus on collaborative problem solving and science-based regulation of complex transnational environmental issues.

The Role Of The Jadids In Elevating The Spirituality Of The People Of Turkestan

This article examines the social, political, and cultural significance of the Jadid movement that took shape in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Turkestan. It highlights the processes associated with national self-awareness, the restoration of education, enlightenment, and national values, as well as reforms aimed at achieving progress. The article also analyzes the movement’s activities through its three main fields: education, art, and the press, and its efforts to strengthen national consciousness and religious beliefs. It demonstrates how the essence of the movement, its struggle to preserve national identity under colonial conditions, and its alignment with the pressing democratic ideas of the time, were interwoven. The study is aimed at illustrating the historical significance of the movement in shaping national consciousness and adapting society to modern development.

The Life and Scientific Work Of Zahid Kawthari

The article provides information about the life and scientific work of the scholar Zahid Kathari, who worked and lived in Turkey and Egypt in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In addition, it touches on various difficulties encountered in his life path and the various debates in scientific circles. The refutations against subversive ideas were also provided.

The Russian Influence on the Formation of Baku’s Urban Identity

In recent times, the identities of cities have become a topic of ongoing discussion. Specifically, the characteristics of the places we live serve as tools for defining, distinguishing, imagining, and even identifying them for us. Therefore, in a globalizing world, the presence of dynamics that possess distinctive features, leave lasting impressions, and contribute to collective memory plays an active role in defining cities and establishing their identities. The capital of Azerbaijan, Baku, is an example of such cities. When we look at the city's rich history, it is evident that Baku was captured by various political powers and underwent transformations during these processes. Among the forces that most significantly influenced the city's transformation were the Russians. In the early 19th century, Tsarist Russia, having gained control over Baku, quickly began taking steps to consolidate its power in the region. Baku’s development continued under Soviet rule, maintaining its importance for almost seventy years under Russian domination, lasting into the present day. During this period, Baku's urban identity was transformed under Russian influence. The city's language, architecture, religion, and culture were all affected by the Russian mentality. As a result, the impact of Russian influence on the formation of Baku's identity is undeniable. In this study, the concepts of identity and urban identity will first be addressed. Following this, a historical connection will be established by describing Baku's occupation by the Russians. In the final section, the Russian influence on the formation of Baku’s urban identity will be examined and explained with examples.

People's perception of toxic substances (based on data on arsenic poisoning in the Urals in the 19th — early 20th century)

The article examines the criminal practices of people handling toxic substances based on data on arsenic poisoning from investigation materials and publications on forensic medicine of the 19th — early 20th century. Residents of the Urals treated arsenic as a poison/potion (“zel'e”). This ambivalent perception did not prevent people from having a significant amount of objective knowledge in toxicology. Persons with medical education passed on this knowledge, skills and abilities to the people. The contingent of such persons during the 19th century increased in the Urals: doctors, physicians (“lekar's”), pharmacists, paramedics, and most often apprentice physicians (“lekarskie ucheniki”) appeared in court cases. The most common route of arsenic entering the body was oral (through the mouth). Women added poison to food and drink and poisoned their husbands. Knowledge about the way poison enters a woman’s body through the genitals was classified as “secret”. This method was used by men against women. It was identified by forensic experts extremely rarely and considered as doubtful. The criminals also varied the dose of arsenic (toxic — fatal), the state of aggregation of the poison (solid — liquid), and the degree of dissolution of this hardly soluble substance. These parameters changed the speed and intensity of poisoning (acute — chronic). Their different combinations changed the symptoms of poisoning: signs of damage to either the gastrointestinal tract or the nervous system were observed. The variety of symptoms of poisoning made it difficult to establish an accurate diagnosis, allowed disguising the crime as different diseases, prevented the victim from receiving proper medical care, and helped the criminal evade responsibility for the poisoning.

Glass products from the First and Second Gostiny excavations in Tobolsk

The article introduces a collection of glassware from the First and Second Gostiny excavations in Tobolsk. Its general characteristics, and the interpretation of well-preserved and specifically significant objects and their analogies are presented, and their origin is being determined. Referring to historical data, a brief history of the emergence and development of glass production in the Tobolsk province is shown. As a result, it has been found that the Tobolsk collection contains both products from local enterprises and imported ones — domestic, including those imitating western brands, and imported, European ones; the study also traces the change in the attitude of the urban population to objects made of glass. From high-status and rare, only accessible to well-off segments of the society in the 17th — early 18th century, they turned into everyday objects in the 19th century, widespread in the urban environment. Products of European origin, as more expensive and high-quality ones, continued to rep-resent objects of prestigious consumption, sought after to emphasize the one’s high position in society.

Müasir Azərbaycan İctimai-Fəlsəfi Fikir Tarixində Əli Bəy Hüseynzadənin Yeri və Rolu

Ali Bey Huseynzade, one of the prominent representatives of Azerbaijan's literary, cultural, social-political, and philosophical thought in the 20th century, was the first publisher of the political-Turkism movement in Azerbaijan. He was a distinguished political figure, talented scientist, thinker, and publicist, and holds a unique place in the history of the Azerbaijani people. Over time, there is an increasing need to deeply comprehend and study the magnificent artistic works created by Ali Bey Huseynzade. Throughout his life, Huseynzade dedicated his prolific writing to the research and promotion of pan-Turkish spiritual values, fighting with all the strength of his brilliant talent for the progress of the Turkic people. He played an important role in the formation of the theoretical-philosophical foundations of the Azerbaijani national idea, striving for reforms in public and cultural life and artistic consciousness through his rich creative output. With his famous "Threefold Formula"-"Turkification, Islamization, Modernization" - he contributed to the formation of the ideology of Azerbaijanism. He advocated for the necessity of abandoning sectarian divisions and uniting all Muslims under the umbrella of a single religion-Islam. In his article titled "What is Young Turkism?", he explained the essence of the Turkish reform movement and expressed his views in many articles published in newspapers and magazines, arguing that Ottoman Turkish should become the common language of all Turks. Having spent more than 30 years of his life in exile, Ali Bey’s complex and turbulent life path was marked by political and cultural struggles aimed at the unity and wholeness of the Turkic world. The article emphasizes the significance of national-democratic values, highly relevant today, and their reflection in Azerbaijani philosophy and social-political thought. It also highlights the necessity of the establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic as the first historical embodiment of the national-democratic statehood ideology, which began in the early 20th century. Ali Bey Huseynzade’s multifaceted activities and his intellectual contributions, not only for Azerbaijani Turks but for the entire Turkic world, affirm the relevance of the subject as he remains a valuable thinker on a broader scale.

Bystrytsia River morphodynamics in the Precarpathian Upland since 147 years ago

The article describes the modern morphodynamics of a small river in the foothills. The Bystrytsia (Tysmenyts’ka) River in the Precarpathian Upland was chosen for the research. It has typical riverbeds: single-channel, multi-channel and meandering. The morphodynamics of the riverbed was studied using the maps of different times (1877, 1906, 1940, 1959) from the different resources ("Archival maps of Poland and Europe"; 1989 from the collections of the Faculty of Geography; 2023 from the resource Open Street Maps; Space images from 2005, 2010, 2014, 2019 and 2021 from the resource Google Earth; 1989 and 2024 from the resource EO Browser). Five sections of the riverbed were identified, where the morphodynamics manifested themselves differently depending on the morphological type of the riverbed and the width of the floodplain. The first section had the following change: two- and multi-channel straight (1877) → single-channel slightly sinuous (1906–1940) → multi-channel straight (1989) → single-channel slightly sinuous and meandering (2021–2024). The second section showed the following morphodynamics at different times: multi-channel sinuous riverbed (1877) → two-channel slightly sinuous with a fragment of a multi-channel (1906–1940) → single-channel slightly sinuous with old riverbeds (1989) → single- and two-channel slightly sinuous (2021–2024). The third segment is characterized by morphodynamics: multi-channel straight (1877–1940) → single-channel straight channel (1989) → single-channel slightly winding with a meander (2021–2024). The morphodynamics of the meandering type of channel in the fourth and fifth segments manifested themselves in changes in their shapes, sizes, angles of turn, deflection length, and transformation of small meanders of the channel. According to the results of the research, we observe a pattern when periods with sufficient precipitation prevailed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the channel morphology had mostly a multi-channel or two-channel form. In the middle and late 20th century the structure is simplified – the channel becomes mostly a single-channel straight. At the beginning of the second decade of the 21st century, the single channel acquires bends and meanders, which was not characteristic for any of the periods. With more precipitation, the water runoff of the river increases and, accordingly, the riverbed becomes multi-channel and meandering. In the third decade of the 21st century, the river takes on a straight shape and a single-channel, rarely – two-channel bed prevails. Extreme floods change the morphology of the channel, and in the periods between them, the river has a stable shape and accumulates potential for changes. Key words: river morphodynamics; river channel; horizontal deformations; instability; modern fluvial processes; channel dynamics; river Bystrytsia; Precarpathian Upland.

From Sacred to Profane: Phra Khun Phaen Amulets in Modern Thailand

In recent years, the Phra Khun Phaen amulet, usually featuring a seated buddha in the subduing Māra pose, has gained popularity among Thais and foreigners, especially Asians. Believed to bestow charisma, wealth, and sexual attraction, the amulet’s origins trace back to the Siamese literary work Khun Chang Khun Phaen from the Ayutthaya period. This article explores its evolution from early clay tablets to modern representations, emphasizing its shift from a Buddhist doctrinal tool to a necromantic symbol of wealth and power, shaped by economic conditions from the early 20th century to today.

M. Gorky and V. Vasnetsov: the Unknown about the Known

A scientific study of unpublished correspondence between M. Gorky and V.M. Vasnetsov and other archival sources has been conducted, which allowed a new look at the complex, even conflicting personal and creative relationships of two major figures of Russian artistic culture of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. The documents found, despite their private nature, raise the main questions of human existence, faith and religion. At the same time, they testify to the deep ideological and political split of Russian society on the eve of the revolution, including its artistic elite. It is shown that Gorky admired the bright talent of Vasnetsov, the artist, from a young age, the pathos of his paintings, praising the heroic strength and invincible spirit of the Russian people. Vasnetsov also took great interest in the young, but already well–known writer – a native of the people. But the correspondence that began between them in 1900 immediately revealed an insurmountable gap in their religious and socio-political views. This was especially clearly manifested in the attitude towards the national genius of Russia – L.N. Tolstoy and his conflict with the Russian Orthodox Church. Therefore, the friendly relations between the writer and the artist, which began in the spring of 1900 with mutual sincere sympathy, did not last long and, apparently, were interrupted in the autumn of the same year.

Explorations in Contemporary Analytic Metaphysics: Grounding, Modality, and the Nature of Reality

Analytic Metaphysics represents a recent evolution of one of the oldest philosophical disciplines, now redefined by the methods of analytic philosophy. This contemporary approach reformulates the traditional ontological questions about existence, reality, and the nature of the Universe, prioritizing rigorous logical analysis and language. Analytic metaphysics, contrasted with continental ontology or traditional metaphysics, has surpassed the popularity of classical metaphysics, establishing itself as the predominant metaphysical stream in philosophical thought. In this special issue of the Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia (Portuguese Journal of Philosophy), we reflect on the current dynamics of analytic metaphysics, emphasizing its continuity with the metaphysical tradition or on new perspectives and pivotal issues driving analytic ontology. Analytic metaphysics, as a contemporary branch of philosophical research, originated from the analytic tradition. This movement emerged in the early 20th century, driven by a desire for greater clarity and rigor in philosophical inquiry. Philosophers such as Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and Ludwig Wittgenstein were pioneers of this movement, advocating a methodology based on precise linguistic argumentation and rigorous logical analysis. Despite the advancements promoted by analytic philosophy, this period was also marked by a profound crisis for metaphysics. Influenced by the rigidity and the spectrum of the new logical positivism, the philosophical community began to view metaphysics with increasing skepticism, often considering it speculative and devoid of any meaningful or empirical content. This view became dominant, dismissing traditional metaphysical questions as pseudo-questions, i.e., devoid of empirical content and therefore devoid of real meaning. However, this trend began to shift under the influence of figures such as W. Quine, who played a key role in revitalizing metaphysics within the analytic tradition, and is often considered the founder of the new “analytic metaphysics.” Notably, his challenge to the then analytic-synthetic distinction in his famous paper “Two Dogmas of Empiricism” had profound implications for logical positivism and the verification principle. Quine argued that there was no clear boundary between purely analytic propositions (known through understanding alone) and synthetic propositions (known through experience), thus breaking the dogmatic boundaries between conceptual analysis and empirical representation. This perspective opened the possibility of reappreciating ontological questions that had until then been marginalized.

Роль іноземних капіталів у формуванні господарської системи України: аналіз наукової літератури другої половини XIX – початку XX ст.

The article is devoted to the analysis of scientific literature of the second half of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, regarding the role of foreign capital in the formation of the economic system of Ukraine. In the context of modern challenges as to the financial support of the war economy, and in the future – of the post-war recovery, attention is focused on the presence of a wide scientific discourse on the search for financial sources of reconstruction, whose important aspect is the attraction of foreign capital. An important informative source for the development of this issue is the presence of domestic historical experience of the period of market-industrial transformations, when Ukraine’s economic system developed as part of the overall imperial complex, and foreign investments became an important factor in its formation and development. In particular, it was found that due to direct and portfolio foreign investments, extensive modernization of this country's industry, and development of the financial sector and communication routes took place, which gives grounds to characterize foreign investment as one of the main stimulating factors for the development of an economic system. Along with this, it is emphasized that foreign investment can be considered a factor in the innovative development of Ukraine’s economy in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, due to the promotion of the creation of new branches of production, the introduction of new technologies and methods of production organization into domestic practice, etc. An important practical conclusion of the conducted research is that the existing historical experience is an important source of substantiation of modern state policy measures in terms of ensuring a favorable institutional environment for attracting foreign capital for the implementation of socially significant projects of modernization and restoration.

Los mercados de alimentos en la ciudad de Rosario

Since the mid-19th century, Rosario was supported by agro-export production, where the countryside, railways, ports and its utilitarian buildings played key roles in its development. To date, at the local level, the cultural and heritage value of the latter has been barely studied, disseminated and/or preserved. In this context, the present work has proposed to record the urban architectural characteristics of the different food markets, with the aim of recognizing their heritage importance. From what was observed, two types of proposals were identified: those that are developed in open spaces and those that are in closed spaces. The latter presented distinctive typological and formal characteristics of the industrial architecture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, differing from each other according to the available lots. Among the paradigmatic cases, the Model Fair and the Food Producers Market stand out, both built in the 1960s, where some of the ideas of the Modern Movement were incorporated.

La internacionalización del derecho civil de contratos

"Globalization," "globality," "harmonization," and "integration" are concepts characteristic of the early 20th century that, in the legal sphere, have gained increasing relevance, especially in relation to Contract Law. But what do these notions mean in this context? And what effects are these phenomena generating?Internationalization, harmonization, and integration are reflected in legislation, particularly in the fact that the harmonization of private law has become a significant trend within the international community. In this regard, the international harmonization of contract law represents one of the most dynamic and productive fields of private law today.From the perspective of contract law development, instruments such as the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts and the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods are increasingly being adopted. These frameworks are used by parties in international transactions as governing law and are applied by arbitration institutions as general rules in global trade contexts.In this sense, both the Contract Law of China and the Contracts Section of the Chinese Civil Code are rooted in a solid practical experience derived from Chinese commercial transactions. At the same time, they incorporate legislative advances from foreign laws and adopt a broad international perspective. These legal instruments reflect distinctively Chinese characteristics while incorporating contemporary elements, positioning themselves as an example of civil law adapted to the era of globalization.

Вопрос народного образования в деятельности городской думы Чистополя конца XIX – начала XX века

The article examines the issue of the attitude of city governments to the development of education in the late 19th and early 20th century on the example of the county town of Chistopol. The purpose of the study is to identify the main trends in the activities of the City Duma in the field of education during the period under review. The public administration allocated a significant part of its budget for education, much like the provincial city of Kazan. Although Chistopol, due to its large population, lagged behind many other county towns in terms of education coverage, the Duma tried its best to increase the number of schools. Great importance was attached to secondary education, both male and female. Repeated attempts were made to transfer secondary educational institutions to a higher level – from gymnasiums to gymnasiums, which was done at the beginning of the 20th century. Funds were allocated for the development of vocational education and Russian classes at the madrasah. As a result of the research, the author concludes that the activities of the City Duma contributed to the significant development of the educational network of Chistopol. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that in historiography, as a rule, either the provincial city or the county towns of the entire province as a whole are considered. Meanwhile, county towns were not a homogeneous phenomenon, they could differ significantly in size, economic structure, and social composition. The study of the educational policy of Chistopol allows us to more fully identify the trends inherent in a particular county town, and in the future, with the accumulation of similar material for other cities, to identify similar and distinctive characteristics of each of them.