Early 20th Century Research Articles

Герб на графское Российской империи достоинство и его версии генерала от кавалерии, атамана Донского Войска графа М.И. Платова

The coat of arms and its versions of Count M.I. Platov are considered for the first time in the scientific literature, their origin, composition, symbolism, role and significance in consolidating the image of a cavalry general, a military ataman of the Don Army in the historical memory of the peoples of Russia and Europe. The highly approved coat of arms of M.I. Platov, little known to contemporaries, was distributed in independent, attributed versions, which played an important role in visualization, strengthening the authority of the “whirlwind chieftain”. It is proven that these versions are unconfirmed and are closely connected with the processes of formation of historical memory and public consciousness in Russia. The versions of the Count's coat of arms of M.I. Platov retained heraldic continuity but were complemented with new figures that revealed the pages of his military and civil service, the relations of the Don Ataman with crowned persons, the military and state elite of Russia and Europe. It is emphasized that the versions of the coats of arms are at the same time independent heraldic and artistic works. According to the authors of the unapproved coats of arms, the awards, additions and changes included in them raised and consolidated the high status of the coat of arms holders, showed their role and merits in the history of Russia. The coat of arms portraits and versions of the coat of arms of Count M.I. Platov reflected the ideas of his contemporaries about his role in the history of the country, the process of formation of the Don nobili-ty, and the state of the heraldic tradition in Russia. Independent, unapproved coats of arms were an important stage in the development of Russian heraldic studies: some are still a kind of reminder of “famous names and events”, others were used primarily to solve personal, property and social problems over the course of one generation and became historical facts in the lives of the coat of arms holders. The coat of arms engraved portrait of M.I. Platov and versions of coats of arms go back to the Don painting and coat of arms tradition of the second half of the 18th – early 19th century. They, preserving artistic and compositional features, are part of the Don and Russian military portrait, Russian heraldry.

THE IMPULSES OF MODERNJADIDISM AND THE ROLEOF PRINTING

Jadidism, a reform movement among Muslims of the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, played a key role in cultural and educational evolution. One of the main factors that contributed to its development began to be distributed in the form of newspapers, magazines, fiction books, scientific manuals, etc. The purpose of this study is to analyze the role of the press in the development and spread of Jadidism.The scientific originality of the work lies in deepening the understanding of the processes of the cultural revolution among the Turkic-Muslim peoples living on the territory of the Russia n Empire, and the role of the press in these processes. Practical originality lies in the possibility of using the data obtained to develop modern traditions of cultural and educational development of the Turkic peoples.The article uses historical analysis as well as descriptive and sociocultural methods to determine the relationships between technological advances in printing and ideological changes in Jadidism, using print methods such as a literacy measurement tool, the promotion of secular education, and the formation of modern Turkic identity.The study showed that print media are a central mechanism in disseminating Jadidist idea s and establishing the positions of reformers. The analysis found that the use of printed materials significantly accelerated economic development and led to profound changes in socia l development.The results of the study can be used to develop strategies for supporting and developing cultural and educational initiatives , as well as to study contemporary media in the field of socia l movement and progressive trends in other cultural contexts.

OSTRICHES AND GEOTOURISM: THE EVOLUTIONARY PATHWAY OF A SMALL TOWN TOURISM DESTINATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Small towns are a critical tier in the settlement hierarchy. For many small towns tourism is a vital sector of local development. This paper contributes an historical perspective on small town destination development. Using archival sources the paper provides a window on the evolutionary development of one small town tourism destination in South Africa. The case study is Oudtshoorn in the Western Cape. During the late 19th century and early 20th century Oudtsthoorn experienced phases of economic boom and bust which linked to international fashion and the trade in ostrich feathers. The imprint of this era is manifest in the town’s landscape of ‘feather palaces’. In terms of early 20th century tourism growth it is demonstrate d geotourism was a critical driver with the asset of Cango Caves. In the period after the Second World War, the local tourism economy diversifies with the revival and reorientation of ostrich farming which incorporates ostriches as tourism attractions. The evolutionary pathway of this small town changes such that its local tourism economy is anchored on the dual foundations of its geotourism and ostrich attractions.

Hats Off to Modeling! Profiling Early Synthetic Dyes on Historic Woolen Samples with ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy and Multivariate Curve Resolution-Alternating Least Square Algorithm.

This research focuses on analyzing wool samples dyed with synthetic dyes from the early 20th century. A methodology to identify and distinguish wool fibers dyed with azo, triphenylmethane, and xanthene dyes, which are no longer in use, using the ATR-FTIR spectra, is presented. Firstly, the dataset was subjected to PCA, which revealed the similarities and differences among the samples, illustrating a distribution pattern based on dye classes. MCR-ALS was employed to extract the spectral profiles of the dyed fibers, thereby enhancing the efficacy of the analytical techniques and extracting the comprehensive information from a single instrument. The combination of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy with chemometric methods, such as PCA and MCR-ALS, has proven to be an effective strategy for identifying and differentiating wool fibers dyed with early azo, triphenylmethane, and xanthene dyes. This approach has demonstrated particular effectiveness in enabling rapid analysis without requiring sampling or pretreatment. Moreover, the analysis is supported by thorough bibliographic research on these no longer used colorants. In order to maximize the potential of non-destructive spectroscopic techniques, such as ATR-FTIR, the approach used has proven to be crucial. This study underscores how chemometric techniques expand the capabilities of spectroscopy, extracting extensive information from a single instrument and aligning with the goals of cultural heritage analysis.

Waves of Feminism in Literature and their Literary Reflections

This research paper explores the evolution of feminist thought across four waves. The first wave, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, focused on women's suffrage and legal rights. The second wave, from the 1960s to the 1980s, addressed reproductive rights and systemic patriarchy. The third wave, beginning in the 1990s, emphasized intersectionality, recognizing diverse identities. The fourth wave, marked by digital activism, confronts issues like sexual harassment and body shaming, reflecting the ongoing evolution of feminist movements

В.С. Соловьев и современные проблемы историографии и источниковедения русской философии

The article presents answers to the following questions formulated by the editorial board of the journal “Solovyov Studies”: How do you assess the current state of research in this field and, in particular, the heritage of V.S. Solovyov? Is there obvious success in publishing the heritage of Russian philosophers and rather sufficient activity of relevant studies? What are the failures and what, in your opinion, are the reasons for them? In recent years in the community of researchers of the history of Russian philosophy one can hear the opinion that the philosophical heritage of V.S. Solovyov is irrelevant. In your opinion, has Solovyov lost his relevance? What aspects of his philosophical, literary and journalistic legacy have not yet been sufficiently developed, are there prospects for the development of the philosophy of unitotality, or does it belong entirely to history? The significance of V.S. Solovyov's legacy as the first, most developed philosophical system and the relevance of his teachings as the most successful example of philosophical thought in Russian are considered. The contribution of V.S. Solovyov to the development of philosophical terminology in Russia is pointed out. A brief outline of the historiography of Russian philosophy is given. It is noted that there is not a large number of critical editions of the sources of Russian philosophy, that the research of the history of Russian philosophy is not a priority in national science and educational policy, that there is not enough historiographical reflection. Modern researchers of Russian philosophy have not formulated fundamentally new approaches and belong to the same historiographical paradigm as the authors of the early 20th century. The situation can be changed by creating a new historical and philosophical narrative.

The Transmission and Development of Wu Changshuo's Seal Script Across Borders: Focusing on the Early 20th Century Korean Peninsula

The Transmission and Development of Wu Changshuo's Seal Script Across Borders: Focusing on the Early 20th Century Korean Peninsula

Late Holocene record of subantarctic glacier variability in Table Fjord, Cook Ice Cap, Kerguelen Islands

The subantarctic islands between 40 and 60°S are circum-polar landmasses influenced by the southern westerly wind (SWW) belt whose latitudinal shifts are driven by the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) over decadal timescales. In the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean, the Kerguelen Islands (49°S) form a volcanic archipelago that is home to the Cook Ice Cap (CIC). Atmospheric drying favored by a poleward migration of the SWW induced a dramatic shrinkage of the CIC over the past 50 years. Current knowledge of how this decline compares with the natural variability of the CIC is unclear and based exclusively on geomorphological records with limited temporal resolution. This paper introduces a 4 kyr marine record built from a transect of giant piston cores collected in Table Fjord, southwestern margin of the CIC. Interpretation of sedimentary and geochemical proxies is supported by statistical correlations with the CIC surface mass balance on the instrumental timescale, and by the age overlapping with dated landforms and deposits over the last two millennia. High-resolution geochronological data (137Cs and 210Pb inventories along with 63 AMS 14C dates) corrected from a local marine reservoir age allowed reconstructing glacier variability at a multidecadal resolution. The CIC was paced by periods of glacial advances at 3.4–2.8, 2.3–1.7, and 1.35–1.15 ka cal BP, followed by a two-stage ‘Little Ice Age’ maximum between 0.7 ka cal BP and the early 20th century. Comparison with paleoenvironmental records from the subantarctic fringe zone and the southern mid-latitudes suggests SWW-driven precipitation (wetter and windier conditions) were the main driver of centennial-scale glacier variability in the Kerguelen Islands, notably after 2.3 ka cal BP. The Kerguelen record thereby supports a zonally-synchronous, hemispheric-wide SWW pattern pacing Southern Ocean climatic variability in a SAM-like mode. The Little Ice Age maximum ice extent results from the coincidence of cold conditions caused by an equatorward shift of the Polar Front, an oceanic front bordering the Kerguelen archipelago resulting in lower sea surface temperatures, together with wetter conditions favored by strengthened SWW.

Pre-Mongolian Medieval Nomadic Monuments from the Saratov Region

The purpose of the article is to compile an up-to-date summary of the medieval nomad monuments dating back to the pre-Mongol period on the territory of the Saratov region. The following tasks are solved: cultural and chronological attribution of the complexes; their mapping; generalization and analysis of the data obtained in the context of the history of the Eastern European nomads. Various methods were used in the work: diachronic (periodization of the nomads existence in the studied territory), historical-systemic (study of nomadic society as a system) and historical-comparative (identification of general developmental patterns of nomadic societies), typological (typology and classification of the archaeological materials and complexes), and chronological (study of gradual development of the nomadic culture in the Lower Volga region). The main source of the study is the materials and publications on the nomadic archaeological sites from the Saratov region, as well as previous generalizing works on this topic. Data on 74 monuments are analyzed and mapped. The complexes are grouped into three natural and geographical zones (the basin of the Khopyor and Medveditsa rivers; the Volga Upland; and the Steppe Trans-Volga region). The complexes are also classified according to the three conditional chronological horizons: Saltovo-Mayaki (8th – 9th centuries); Oghuz-Pechenegs (9th – 11th centuries); and Polovtsian (late 11th – early 13th centuries). An attempt is made to correlate the well-known complexes of the Saltovo-Mayaki culture with its separate ethno-cultural groups (the Bulgars, the Khazars, and the Alans) and among the materials of the 9th –11th centuries to single out the Pecheneg and Oghuz components. The Polovtsian sculptures and the burials were correlated with written data on the groups of nomads from the Volga-Don steppes dating back to the middle of the 9th – early 13th centuries.

The existential semantics of the somatic metaphor in the poetic picture of the world in the early 20th century

The existential semantics of the somatic metaphor in the poetic picture of the world in the early 20th century

Діяльність Володимира Старосольського як адвоката та громадського діяча у сфері захисту мовних прав українців в Другій Речі Посполитій

The article examines Volodymyr Starosolskyi’s contributions as a lawyer, public figure, and scholar of constitutionalism, specifically focusing on his role in defending the language rights of Ukrainians in the Second Polish Republic. This is explored within the broader context of the Ukrainian national question in the early 20th century. The article highlights the political, legal, and social realities of the time, detailing Starosolskyi’s involvement in judicial political processes against Ukrainians in Poland, as well as his political and legal writings. The study is based on a significant range of sources, including Volodymyr Starosolskyi’s correspondence, scientific treatises on language policy, and courtroomspeeches. Thesematerials provide a comprehensive understanding of his worldview and beliefs. Particular attention is given to the formation of his ideas, which were shaped by prominent Ukrainian public figures and legal scholars, such as I. Voloshyn, R. Dombachevskyi, M. Glushkevych, S. Dnistryanskyi, K. Levytskyi, and I. Franko. The article also uncovers lesser-known aspects of Starosolskyi’s legal practice, including his active participation in the Union of Ukrainian Lawyers, a professional association dedicated to defending the national rights of Ukrainians. Additionally, it analyzes the judicial political trials of the 1930s, in which Starosolskyi defended the language rights of Ukrainians. The author concludes that Starosolskyi’s involvement in the human rights movement in Western Ukraine, particularly in response to the Polish government’s discriminatory policies, became the driving force of his legal and public work. His advocacy for Ukrainian language rights was a central aspect of his broader efforts to address Ukraine’s national and sociopolitical challenges and to realize the vision of an independent Ukrainian state.

THE HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY: MARXISM AND POPULISM

The article examines the main provisions of Marxism and populism, their impact on the development of Russian public thought and practice, and also provides a critical analysis of their applicability in modern society. The analysis of these two approaches makes it possible to better understand the different ways of understanding social changes and their impact on the formation of political and economic models. The article shows that the historical perspective of the study of Marxism and populism makes it possible to understand the basic principles and ideas underlying each of these areas of public thought in Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and analyze their impact on society. The historical context in which these ideologies arose is also investigated, and their development in subsequent years is considered.

Enhancing floral diversity: A review of mutation breeding techniques in flower crops

Flower crops encompass a wide range of ornamental annuals and perennials that are commercially cultivated for aesthetic appeal of their floral displays. Mutation induction has been used since the early 20th century to increase genetic diversity and develop new flower varieties with improved yield, quality, adaptation and market value. Mutation experiments have successfully created genetic variability and novel phenotypes in diverse floral species. Mutation breeding, which involves the induction of genetic variations via physical and chemical mutagens, has emerged as a vital technique for enhancing ornamental plant traits, such as flower color, shape, disease resistance and stress tolerance. It explores the types and applications of physical mutagens, such as gamma rays and ion beams and chemical mutagens, such as ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS) and sodium azide (SA). This review provides detailed insights into mutation breeding research conducted on major flower crops (e.g., rose, carnation, chrysanthemum and gerbera). This study also highlights achievements in the development of novel flower varieties, highlights the key challenges faced in mutation breeding programs and identifies gaps in research, particularly concerning the comparative efficacy of different mutagens, environmental impacts and genetic stability of mutated varieties. Furthermore, the impact of mutation breeding on the global flower market is discussed, emphasizing its role in expanding trait diversity, catering to niche markets and enhancing the commercial value of flower crops. Mutation breeding offers significant promise in the development of sustainable and climate-resilient ornamental crops that can meet the needs of emerging markets. This review serves as a valuable resource for students, scientists and breeders interested in leveraging mutation breeding for floral crop improvement.

Творчество Максима Грека и проповедь Андрея Денисова: к постановке проблемы

<p>The literary school created by the Vyg Old Believers the early 18th century is a unique phenomenon of Russian culture. The Vygovtsy' desire to use the latest rhetorical strategies was organically combined with a reliance on national tradition, represented, in particular, by a system of book authorities. These included the 16th-century Greek-Russian theologian, philosopher, and philologist Maxim the Greek, deeply revered by the Old Believers. The defenders of the Old Rite not only used his writings in ecclesiastical polemics to defend their position. It was the Vyg Old Believers, led by their mentor Andrei Denisov (1676-1730), who continued the manuscript tradition of Maxim' writings, creating a new codex on the basis of his texts — the Pomorian Codex. The article emphasizes that Maxim the Greek influenced the literary work of Andrei Denisov, the leader of the Vyg Old Believers. He was not only the initiator of many years of work on the creation of the Pomorian Codex and not only one of the main compilers of the Pomorian Answers, where the arguments of Maxim the Greek were used. The name of Maxim and references to his writings can be found in Andrei Denisov's sermons, and one of Maxim the Greek's plots, borrowed from the work of Hieronymus Savonarola, formed the basis of Andrei Denisov's popular work in the Old Believer tradition — Slovo plachevno o zlostrafaniyah i skorbeh Tserkvi Christovoy [the Lamenting Tales for the afflictions and sorrows of the Church of Christ]. The author of the article makes assumptions about the influence of some artistic principles of the work of the famous Athonite on the poetics of Andrei Denisov's sermon.</p>

Trailblazer in Health Education: The Legacy of Thomas Denison Wood.

Thomas Denison Wood, often regarded as the "Father of Health Education," was a pioneering figure in the early 20th century whose work laid the foundation for modern health education. His contributions were instrumental in integrating health education into the public school curriculum in the United States. Wood advocated for a holistic approach to health, encompassing physical fitness, hygiene, nutrition, mental health, and preventive care. His key achievements include the development of comprehensive health education programs, leadership in professional organizations, and the establishment of the New York City School Health Program. Wood authored several influential books, such as "Health by Stunts" (1901) and "A Textbook of Hygiene" (1915), which provided practical guidance on maintaining health and were widely used in educational settings. His work emphasized the importance of lifelong health education, beginning in childhood and continuing throughout life. Through his writings, teaching, and advocacy, Wood significantly shaped the field of health education, and his legacy continues to influence health education practices today.

“Incommensurable Airspace”: Image of Russia in Travelogue of Maxim Nezvorov

This article analyzes the image of Russia in Maxim Nezvorov’s travelogue “Journey to Kazan, Vyatka, and Orenburg in 1800.” Based on theoretical frameworks, we identify three aspects of analysis: genre, spatiality, and subjectivity. The study employs structuraldescriptive and cultural-historical methods, alongside the foundational principles of N. L. Leiderman’s genre theory, V. L. Kagansky’s concept of cultural landscape, and B. O. Korman’s ideas on the subject of artistic text. Our findings indicate that the choice of a quasi-documentary epistolary form allowed the author to establish a commitment to authenticity, combined with a characteristically sentimental intention of the “sensitive traveler.” It is demonstrated that Nezvorov delineates a system-forming dichotomy of “centerperiphery,” within which the cultural landscape is (re)constructed. We conclude that the author evaluates a key component of this landscape — urban planning and architecture — while the landscape itself serves a supportive role. Nezvorov pays particular attention to the extraordinarily diverse ethnic composition of the empire’s population. Although he rarely grants his “interlocutors” a voice, their comments and judgments enable a partial reconstruction of the worldview of a person in the early 19th century, one of the key elements of which is the image of Russia.

Two early cinquecento Renaissance polyptychs by Antonio de Saliba on Sicily and Malta: an art-historical and scientific investigationtion

This study focuses on two Renaissance polyptychs that were produced by Antonio (1466/7–c. 1535) and Giovanni de Saliba (doc. 1461–1517?), referred to in this study as the Taormina Polyptych (1503–04) and the Rabat Polyptych (1510–15). Through art-historical research and scientific analyses, this study sheds light on their original visual completion and manufacturing techniques. The Taormina Polyptych, located at the Cathedral of St Nicholas of Bari in Taormina, Sicily, underwent thorough on-site examination, revealing details overlooked in prior studies. A two-dimensional digital reconstruction, the creation of which was aided by early 20th century photographs, provided insights into its original appearance. The Rabat Polyptych, once situated in the Franciscan Observant Church in Rabat, Malta, faced dismemberment in 1785, leading to challenges in reconstruction. By analysing historical documents and employing digital reconstruction techniques, the original framework was hypothesised. Scientific studies, including histological and stratigraphic analyses of wood and pigment samples respectively, carried out on two newly discovered predella panels from the Rabat Polyptych, provided insight on Antonio de Saliba's techniques. The digital reconstructions and insights into manufacturing techniques contribute to scholarship on Antonio’s works in the context of Sicilian Renaissance art.

The concept of legal dualism and its overcoming in contemporary studies of the Russian Empire

The productive interdisciplinary exchange with legal anthropology and the “law and society” paradigm has significantly contributed to the formation of the “legal turn” in historical studies of empires. This “turn” has intensified the study of legal pluralism, the competition and mutual influence among various types of imperial jurisdictions (state, corporate, confessional, ethnic, estate-based, regional, communal, etc.), and the significance of law and judicial institutions in managing diversity and integrating imperial spaces. Additionally, it explores the role of judicial and legal institutions in reinforcing the status and identity of imperial communities and in shaping their interactions with the state. This article, in light of the new interdisciplinary synthesis, discusses one of the oldest and most enduring concepts in the legal-historical sphere of the Russian Empire — the model of “legal dualism”. Formed in the 19th century, this concept remains influential in historiography. It posits the coexistence and sharp distinction between two legal realms: on one hand, a unified realm of modern statutory law and corresponding institutions that regulate the lives of the empire's elite; and on the other hand, an ethnically and locally variable realm of particularistic “customary law” and associated conflict resolution practices prevalent among the heterogeneous population of the imperial center and periphery. According to this concept, the establishment of new courts modeled on European systems during the post-reform period exacerbated the legal and behavioral divide, disrupting pre-existing elements of pre-reform particularistic inclusion of ethnic and class communities. However, recent research has critiqued and revised the “legal dualism” concept in both the pre-reform and post-reform periods. Analyzing this historiographical dynamic has enabled the identification of the most promising avenues for further research on the legal-historical aspects of Russia from the 18th to the early 20th centuries, developing a more realistic depiction of the interaction between the state and various local, regional, class-based, ethnic, and confessional communities within the empire.

Synthesis in Alexander Matveyev’s Creative Work

Alexander Matveyev (1878-1960) was an outstanding Russian Soviet sculptor and talented teacher who formed the neoclassical school of Russian sculpture. The amazing integrity and consistency of the master’s creative searches led him to the creation of the clearest and most precise plastic system, distinguished by the striking stylistic unity of the artistic language, internal content, and emotional structure of his images. At the same time, the sculptor’s plastic system was initially devoid of any compromise - it very quickly acquired the features of a qualitatively new phenomenon. While preserving the achievements of impressionism in developing the problem of interaction between sculpture and the light and air environment, Matveyev constantly paid great attention to direct work with material. Alexander Matveyev’s creative work is typologically exceptionally diverse. In monumental and decorative plastic art, the master made a name for himself when designing the Golden Fleece Salon exhibition back in 1902. He also gained experience in the genre of portrait bust, two-figure composition, and relief of various types. Internally, his creative method was determined by the figurative and poetic structure that is so characteristic of Matveyev's works and, in general, of the masters of his circle. It was these characteristics of the sculptor's talent that allowed him to say a fundamentally new word in the sphere of synthesis of sculpture and the enclosing landscape - both urban and natural, both in the sphere of symbolic composition and in the genre of tombstones. The tombstone of his friend and mentor, Viktor Borisov-Musatov, the outstanding painter of the early 20th century, was a true masterpiece of this genre and truly innovative in its figurative structure. His ensemble of New Kuchuk-Koy became an especially outstanding achievement in park sculpture new spatial design. In these compositions, the sculptor practically developed a fundamentally new language of park sculpture and achieved an amazing unity of his creations with the surrounding natural and architectural landscape. The monumental group October and the project of the monument to the soldiers of the Far Eastern Army in Dauriya demonstrate the process of evolution of the master’s own style along the line of developing an increasingly laconic design and moving away from attaching details to a general form and symbolic expressiveness of sculptures. At the same time, Alexander Matveyev’s legacy consists of a huge number of sketches of unrealised monuments to V. Lenin, M. Gorky, M. Lermontov, A. Chekhov, and others.

Преодоление политико-теологической логики в анархизме Густава Ландауэра

Schmitt’s flagship project of political theology has recently become the subject of widespread discussion in political philosophy. One of the trends that has emerged in the interpretations of this project is associated with criticism of Carl Schmitt’s political-theological approach itself. An increasing number of authors see political theology as a serious challenge for modernity, considering it a tool for justifying and legitimizing state violence. Therefore, there is a need to overcome political-theological logic and turn to other strategies for thinking about the political. At the same time, the question of resources that could act as an alternative to Schmitt’s project is becoming more relevant. The article proves that anarchist theory can become such a resource. The author, however, does not mean its classical version, reflected in the works of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin. Having reconstructed Schmitt’s vision of anarchism, he shows that, although the German philosopher’s interpretation of anarchist theory was not completely correct, Schmitt was not entirely wrong when he called the classical anarchists of the 19th century anti-theological theologians and anti-dictatorship dictators, qualifying them as inverted counterparts to the theorists of state absolutism. However, anarchist thought is not confined to the attitudes of the followers of Bakunin and Proudhon. Thus, the author turns to the concept of Gustav Landauer, the German anarchist of the early 20th century, demonstrating that it is free from the inherent flaws of classical anarchism and presupposes a model of political thinking that is fundamentally different from Schmitt’s model, being located outside the political-theological frame. According to his conclusion, being free from political and theological assumptions, this model allows one to talk about politics and the social outside of the usual terms, such as state, power, domination, and subordination, moving rather towards the idea of autonomous communities, excluded from the current state order and at the same time coexisting with such order.