Early History Research Articles

Diagenetic impacts on Ca isotopes and Mg/Ca ratios of Globigerinoides ruber shells in the eastern Mediterranean

The presence of Mg-rich calcite in foraminifera shells has impeded traditional calcite-based palaeothermometry in the eastern Mediterranean, complicating our understanding of the region's past climate. We analysed the Ca isotopic composition ( δ 44/40 Ca) in the shells of the planktonic foraminifera species Globigerinoides ruber (white), collected from 12 core-top sediment samples spanning the Aegean and Levantine seas in the eastern Mediterranean. The shells exhibited varying degrees of early diagenetic Mg-rich authigenic calcite coatings, which complicate traditional calcite-based palaeothermometry in the region. Our findings demonstrate a significant correlation between the δ 44/40 Ca data and the Mg/Ca ratios of the shells and suggest that the inorganic calcite overgrowth originates from seawater. Moreover, the Ca isotopic composition increases with the amount of calcite overgrowth. This relationship allowed us to quantify the maximum potential inorganic end-member. The highest amount of post-depositional calcite precipitation was observed in the warm, shallow basins of the South Aegean Sea. The diagenetic alteration of the primary biogenic δ 44/40 Ca geochemical signal is linked to the quantity of secondary calcite present. By combining Ca isotope and Mg/Ca measurements on isolated foraminifera tests, we provide novel insights into the early diagenetic history of carbonate-bound geochemical proxies.

Antimatter in astronomy and cosmology: the early history

ABSTRACT So-called antimatter in the form of elementary particles such as positive electrons (antielectrons alias positrons) and negative protons (antiprotons) has for long been investigated by physicists. However, atoms or molecules of this exotic kind are conspicuously absent from nature. Since antimatter is believed to be symmetric with ordinary matter, the flagrant asymmetry constitutes a problem that still worries physicists and cosmologists. As first suggested by Paul Dirac in 1933, in distant parts of the universe there might be entire stars and galaxies made of antiparticles alone. Why not? This paper examines how the concepts of antiparticles and antimatter slowly migrated from particle physics to astronomy and cosmology. At around 1970 a few physicists speculated about an anti-universe separate from ours while others looked for the charge asymmetry in quantum processes in the early big-bang explosion of the universe. Others again proposed a ‘plasma cosmology’ that kept our world and the hypothetical world of antimatter apart. Soviet physicists and astronomers were no less interested in the problem than their colleagues in the West. The paper details the development up to the late 1970s, paying attention not only to mainstream scientific works but also to more speculative ideas, some of them very speculative. By that time the antimatter mystery remained mysterious – which is still the situation.

Reconstructing the experienced temperature during the larval oceanic migration of anguillid eels from otolith stable oxygen isotopes

Migration routes and the depth patterns of anguillid eel larvae migrating long distances from spawning grounds in the ocean remain poorly understood. We used otolith stable isotope analysis to study the oceanic migrations of anguillid eels by reconstructing experienced water temperature histories of larvae. The otolith stable oxygen isotopes (δ18Ootolith) of recruited Anguilla japonica glass eels were analyzed to assess the relationship with the experienced water temperature of the early larval stage in laboratory experiments. A negative linear relationship between rearing water temperature and δ18Ootolith values was observed for eel leptocephali reared at five different temperatures between 19 °C and 27 °C. Subsequently, the obtained equation between water temperature and δ18Ootolith was applied to estimate the water temperature experienced by wild-caught glass eels during their larval oceanic migration according to recruitment latitude, season, and species. The δ18Ootolith values of A. japonica glass eels were significantly higher at higher recruitment latitudes from Taiwan to Japan and later recruitment periods of 6 months, from November to March, indicating that the individuals were exposed to lower water temperatures along the Kuroshio flowing northward as they reached the higher latitudes in the later recruitment seasons. Furthermore, the δ18Ootolith values of the temperate A. japonica were higher than those of the tropical Anguilla marmorata, recruited at the same locations in southern Japan and Taiwan. This suggests that larval migratory behavior in the ocean may differ between the two eel species, although they have sympatric spawning areas in the western North Pacific. Collectively, these results suggest that δ18Ootolith provides a reasonable estimation of the experienced water temperature and may prove useful for reconstructing the early migratory history of anguillid eels in the ocean.

Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) genome provides new insights into convergent evolution of caffeine biosynthesis.

Yerba mate (YM, Ilex paraguariensis) is an economically important crop marketed for the elaboration of mate, the third-most widely consumed caffeine-containing infusion worldwide. Here, we report the first genome assembly of this species, which has a total length of 1.06 Gb and contains 53,390 protein-coding genes. Comparative analyses revealed that the large YM genome size is partly due to a whole-genome duplication (Ip-α) during the early evolutionary history of Ilex, in addition to the hexaploidization event (γ) shared by core eudicots. Characterization of the genome allowed us to clone the genes encoding methyltransferase enzymes that catalyse multiple reactions required for caffeine production. To our surprise, this species has converged upon a different biochemical pathway compared to that of coffee and tea. In order to gain insight into the structural basis for the convergent enzyme activities, we obtained a crystal structure for the terminal enzyme in the pathway that forms caffeine. The structure reveals that convergent solutions have evolved for substrate positioning because different amino acid residues facilitate a different substrate orientation such that efficient methylation occurs in the independently evolved enzymes in YM and coffee. While our results show phylogenomic constraint limits the genes coopted for convergence of caffeine biosynthesis, the X-ray diffraction data suggest structural constraints are minimal for the convergent evolution of individual reactions.

New Silurian aculiferan fossils reveal complex early history of Mollusca

Mollusca is the second most species-rich animal phylum, but the pathways of early molluscan evolution have long been controversial1, 2, 3, 4–5. Modern faunas retain only a fraction of the past forms in this hyperdiverse and long-lived group. Recent analyses6, 7–8 have consistently recovered a fundamental split into two sister clades, Conchifera (including gastropods, bivalves and cephalopods) and Aculifera9, comprising Polyplacophora (‘chitons’) and Aplacophora. Molluscan evolution in toto is characterized by plasticity in body-plan characters10, but historically aculiferans have been interpreted as more conservative10,11. The few completely preserved aculiferan or aculiferan-like fossils from the early Palaeozoic12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18–19 have been largely regarded as transitional forms that inform questions of character polarity between the extant polyplacophoran and aplacophoran body forms20,21. The history of early aculiferans, and the morphological and ecological range that they occupied, remain inadequately sampled. Here we describe two new three-dimensionally preserved aculiferan species from the Silurian Herefordshire Lagerstätte22,23, which substantially extend the morphological and ecological range of the clade. Phylogenetic analyses indicate positions within a complex nexus of taxa and suggest reversals in the states of fundamental characters such as the presence of valves and the nature of the foot. In contrast to previous hypotheses of morphological conservatism, evolution in early aculiferans generated a profusion of unusual forms comparable to the diversification of other crown-group molluscs.

Surveillance Capitalism: Origins, History, Consequences

This article investigates the early history and recent development of what is now termed surveillance capitalism. It argues that an underappreciated aspect of the surveillance of people and intensive data collection is a regularization of behavior that attempts to erase uncertainty. This process has been ongoing for more than a century, but its expansion through increasingly sophisticated digital technology and the widespread adoption of data gathering as a business strategy has the potential to stifle and inhibit the innovative entrepreneurship that is crucial to the capitalist system. How this will play out remains unclear, but history argues that we should look for ways to mitigate the potentially negative consequences of complex technological systems such as these.

The Lasting Impact of Social Isolation: Behavioral Insights From Former Pet and Entertainer Chimpanzees in a Sanctuary in Spain.

Human fascination with chimpanzees has driven extensive research on the species, but also led to exploitation by private owners and entertainment industries. These animals often suffer species-specific inadequate conditions, which can result in the development and display of abnormal behaviors even after rescue. These behaviors highlight the importance for zoos and sanctuaries to actively prevent worsening the effects of previous inadequate treatment by providing apes with social and stimulating environments that support their recovery. We conducted a 2-month behavioral survey on two groups of former pet and entertainment chimpanzees (n = 10) at the Fundación MONA sanctuary in Spain. From 116 h of instantaneous scan observations, we documented individual abnormal behaviors (e.g., self-poking, overgrooming, self-scratching). We assessed the association between the occurrence of these behaviors and individuals' origin, early history, age at rescue, and pre-rescue social conditions. We found no significant difference in the frequency of abnormal behavior between pet and entertainer chimpanzees, and between individuals born in captivity versus in the wild. Moreover, we observed that the frequency of abnormal behaviors increased with age at rescue for previously isolated individuals, but the correlation disappeared for those socially housed pre-rescue. These findings suggest that early social isolation and a late age at rescue may impose long-term changes on chimpanzees' behavior, and they emphasize the importance of accounting for age at rescue and previous housing conditions in care management and rehabilitation procedures.

Delicate curvature bounces in the no-boundary wave function and in the late universe

Theoretical considerations motivate us to consider vacuum energy to be able to decay and to assume that the spatial geometry of the universe is closed. Combining both aspects leads to the possibility that the universe, or certain regions thereof, can collapse and subsequently undergo a curvature bounce. This may have occurred in the very early universe, in a pre-inflationary phase. We discuss the construction of the corresponding no-boundary instantons and show that they indeed reproduce a bouncing history of the universe, interestingly with a small and potentially observable departure from classicality during the contracting phase. Such an early bouncing history receives a large weighting and provides competition for a more standard inflationary branch of the wave function. Curvature bounces may also occur in the future. We discuss the conditions under which they may take place, allowing for density fluctuations in the matter distribution in the universe. Overall, we find that curvature bounces require a delicate combination of matter content and initial conditions to occur, though with significant consequences if these conditions are met.

:Fixers: Agency, Translation, and the Early Global History of Literature

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Phylogenomic insights into the taxonomy, ecology, and mating systems of the lorchel family Discinaceae (Pezizales, Ascomycota).

Lorchels, also known as false morels (Gyromitra sensu lato), are iconic due to their brain-shaped mushrooms and production of gyromitrin, a deadly mycotoxin. Molecular phylogenetic studies have hitherto failed to resolve deep-branching relationships in the lorchel family, Discinaceae, hampering our ability to settle longstanding taxonomic debates and to reconstruct the evolution of toxin production. We generated 75 draft genomes from cultures and ascomata (some collected as early as 1960), conducted phylogenomic analyses using 1542 single-copy orthologs to infer the early evolutionary history of lorchels, and identified genomic signatures of trophic mode and mating-type loci to better understand lorchel ecology and reproductive biology. Our phylogenomic tree was supported by high gene tree concordance, facilitating taxonomic revisions in Discinaceae. We recognized 10 genera across two tribes: tribe Discineae (Discina, Maublancomyces, Neogyromitra, Piscidiscina, and Pseudodiscina) and tribe Gyromitreae (Gyromitra, Hydnotrya, Paragyromitra, Pseudorhizina, and Pseudoverpa); Piscidiscina was newly erected and 26 new combinations were formalized. Paradiscina melaleuca and Marcelleina donadinii formed their own family-level clade sister to Morchellaceae, which merits further taxonomic study. Genome size and CAZyme content were consistent with a mycorrhizal lifestyle for the truffle species (Hydnotrya spp.), whereas the other Discinaceae genera possessed genomic properties of a saprotrophic habit. Lorchels were found to be predominantly heterothallic-either MAT1-1 or MAT1-2-but a single occurrence of colocalized mating-type idiomorphs indicative of homothallism was observed in Gyromitra esculenta strain CBS101906 and requires additional confirmation and follow-up study. Lastly, we confirmed that gyromitrin has a phylogenetically discontinuous distribution, having been detected exclusively in two distantly related genera (Gyromitra and Piscidiscina) belonging to separate tribes. Our genomic dataset will facilitate further investigations into the gyromitrin biosynthesis genes and their evolutionary history. With additional sampling of Geomoriaceae and Helvellaceae-two closely related families with no publicly available genomes-these data will enable comprehensive studies on the independent evolution of truffles and ecological diversification in an economically important group of pezizalean fungi.

Assessing the Role of Incubation Temperature as a Barrier to Successful Establishment of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchuskisutch) in a Rapidly Warming Arctic.

Warming associated with climate change is driving poleward shifts in the marine habitat of anadromous Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.). Yet the spawning locations for salmon to establish self-sustaining populations and the consequences for the ecosystem if they should do so are unclear. Here, we explore the role of temperature-dependent incubation survival and developmental phenology of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) as a potential early life history barrier to establishment in an Arctic stream. We exposed embryos to temperatures previously recorded in the substrate of an Arctic groundwater spring-fed spawning environment. Using a common garden experimental design, coho salmon embryos were exposed to treatments that thermally mimicked four spawning dates from August 1 to October 1 (AUG1, SEPT1, SEPT15, and OCT1). Spawning temperatures were 6°C at the warmest (AUG1) and 1.25°C at the coldest (OCT1). We observed low survival rates in SEPT1 (41%) and OCT1 (34%) and near complete mortality in the other treatments. While far below what is considered normal in benign hatchery-like conditions, these rates suggest that temperatures experienced at these spawning dates are survivable. We detected differences in developmental rates across treatments; embryos developed 1.9 times faster in the warmest treatment (AUG1, 120 days) compared to the coldest (OCT1, 231 days). Differences in accumulated thermal units (ATUs) needed for hatching ranged from 392 ATUs in AUG1 to 270 ATUs in OCT1, revealing compensation in developmental requirements. Given these findings, the most thermally suitable spawning dates within our study are between September 15 and October 1, which facilitates hatching and projected nest emergence to occur in spring warming conditions (March-September). Broadly, our findings suggest that spawning sites within thermal tolerances that can support the survival and development of coho salmon exist in the North American Arctic. Whether the habitat is otherwise suitable for transitions through other life stages remains unknown.

INTERVIEW: ON ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY WITH ALAN MIKHAIL

Alan Mikhail is the author of five books and editor of another. His work has helped to establish the field of Middle East environmental history, positioned the Ottoman Empire at the center of global early modern history, and creatively scrutinized the place of the archive in the making of past and present. He is currently working on the intertwined histories of Islam and colonial America.

Tābān’s Magnificence Illuminated in Delhi’s Early Reḳhtah Scene, 1728–1748

Abstract This article examines the productive tensions of delight, memory, and affiliation as they structured early Urdu literary history by presenting the previously unconsidered lineages of poet ʿAbd ul-Ḥayy Tābān (1715–1748). Among notable reḳhtah composers of the 1730s and 1740s, Tābān was a Delhi local who died young but influenced ġhazal-writing over his short career. He wrote simple, idiomatic verse, seeming to pre-empt Delhi’s turn away from poetry that featured īhām (misdirection). However, the sociability of īhām writers greatly informed Tābān’s ġhazal writing abilities, instantiating him within a mid-century constellation of writers such as Maz̤har, Ḥātim, Yaqīn, and Saudā. Modern writings, however, circumvent the most important facet of Tābān’s background: Tābān earned his literary credentials through connections to a popular cohort of street poets and punsters informally known as the firqah-e qabūliyah or the “Qabūliyan Contingent.” The Qabūliyans were a tight confederation of Persian- language īhām writers named for their founder ʿAbd ul-Ġhanī Beg Qabūl (d. 1727), a Kashmiri poet, denizen of Feroz Shah Kotla, and important teacher to Delhi’s poets in the early 1700s, most notably Tābān’s beloved ustād Muḥammad ʿAlī Ḥashmat (1696?– 1749). The “Qabūliyan Contingent” included, among others, Qabūl’s son Mīrzā Girāmī Hamadānī (d. 1743) and the tażkirah writer Kishan Chand Iḳhlāṣ (d. 1748 or 1754). Tābān’s emulations, tributes, and chronograms that laud the Qabūliyans when coupled with tażkirah writing from the period contextualize literary values that focused on enjoyment and flexibility, a conception of popular literary sociability that was enthusiastically documented in Persian tażkirahs but regarded with ambivalence by early reḳhtah writers and later Urdu-language historians. Tābān’s words, stylistic generosity, and concern for literary delight when examined from a Qabūliyan stance illuminate a previously unconsidered facet of Delhi’s complex early reḳhtah literary culture.

The Viking Paradigm in Early Medieval History

Abstract In this short note I query not so much the use of the word ‘vikings’ or the fraught question of whether it should be capitalised, but rather whether ‘the Vikings’ is a useful concept that helps us understand history, or whether it creates an inaccurate essentialist category for which there is no historical evidence. The piece argues for more nuance and specificity when dealing with Scandinavia and the Scandinavian diaspora in our period, and argues that the variety of phenomena across times and space warrants more serious consideration. The time has come to ditch this twentieth-century concept and to return to the sources.

Deep Time, Prehistoric Animals, and the Crystal: J. G. Ballard and Haeckel’s Evolutionary Biology

ABSTRACT This essay reveals British science fiction writer J. G. Ballard’s unknown relationship with German evolutionary biologist Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919), who claimed in the late nineteenth century that ontogenesis was a brief and rapid recapitulation of phylogenesis. Though most of Haeckel’s theories are no longer scientifically influential, Ballard seems to have known a great deal about his extensive work and responded to it in his own “new wave” science fiction by skillfully connecting the recapitulation theory to his exploration of “deep time.” More importantly, Ballard’s concept of “inner space,” which he famously presented in his literary manifesto ”Which Way to Inner Space?” (1962), also seems to be based on Haeckel’s evolutionary biology. To demonstrate this, the paper discusses Haeckel’s direct and indirect influence on Ballard’s novels, such as The Drowned World (1962) and The Crystal World (1966), analyzing the writer’s representations of “deep time,” prehistoric animals, monism, and the crystallization of the world in relation to the theories posited by this forgotten German biologist.

Thracia Homerica: тракийският меч

The article explores two passages in the Iliad relating to the use of a sword called “Thracian” (Hom. Il.: 13, 576–577; 23, 807–808; 824–825). Despite the given information being interpreted in various commentaries on the Iliad and in a number of studies devoted to the early history of Thracian communities, it has not been the object of specific research. The evidence is examined from the point of view of its characterisation in the text, the relations to the other testimonies in epic referring to Thrace and in the context of the sword finds in the North Aegean and its hinterland in Inner Thrace during the Late Bronze and the Early Iron Age. As a fragment of the complex narrative structure of the poem, the “Thracian sword” is situated in two different contexts – as a weapon used on the battlefield and as a prize in a funeral game. In both cases, the sword is not owned by Thracian warriors. The lack of a contextual connection between the Thracian contingents and the weapon is seen as a main issue in the examination of the source. The mention of the “Thracian” sword, however, form the plethora of the earliest written evidence of Ancient Thrace that reflects the mutual knowledge of the communities in the region. In the Homeric world, contacts with Thracians are represented by intercultural relations such as wine trade, gift exchange, intermarriage, and participation in military conflicts. These models of cultural interactions are commonplace in the poem and it is difficult to determine whether they indicate actual contacts between Hellenic and North Aegean communities. The uncertainties are fuelled by the lack of information in the preserved Trojan Cycle on the events in Troy at the end of the Late Bronze and the beginning of the Early Iron Age, when in layer VIIb (and VIIb2 in particular) occurred a marked change in the material culture, associated with the settlement of inhabitants from Inner Thrace. From this perspective, the question whether the testimony refers to an existing weapon or it is a product of literary invention remains open.

Vavro Šrobár: Slovak politician and publicist as a medical doctor involved (also) in the history of medicine.

Vavro Šrobár was a prominent political figure in East-Central Europe. He played a pivotal role in the establishment and development of the First Czechoslovak Republic, which emerged following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was the first Minister to exercise full administrative authority in overseeing the Provisional Government of Slovakia, and throughout his career, including until the end of his life, he held several significant political positions, such as Minister of Public Health and Physical Education, Minister of Unification, Minister of Education and National Enlightenment, and Minister of Finance. Among his numerous contributions, Šrobár was unquestionably one of the key figures behind the founding of the University in Bratislava. His name subsequently became closely associated with the first decades of the Bratislava Faculty of Medicine at Comenius University, founded in 1919. In the field of medicine, he is regarded as one of the founding figures of social medicine in Slovakia. This article will primarily examine Šrobár's medical accomplishments within the context of healthcare in present-day Slovakia during the first quarter of the 20th century and his work at the Faculty of Medicine in Bratislava. Additionally, we will explore the connection between his person and the early history of medicine in Slovakia.

A first-principles investigation on the enthalpy landscape for the hibonite solid solution: Implications for a nebular barometer

Abstract Hibonite, nominally CaAl12O19, is among the first minerals thermodynamically predicted to have formed in the early history of our solar system. It can incorporate significant amounts of Ti (≤15 wt%, ∼2 cations per formula unit) into its crystal structure as both Ti4+ and Ti3+. The main pathways for Ti incorporation in the solar nebula include a direct substitution of Ti3+ replacing Al3+ and a coupled substitution in which Ti4+ and Mg2+ replace two Al3+. Additionally, the formation of oxygen vacancies can also reduce a Ti4+ cation to Ti3+ by trapping a free electron. The relative amounts of these cations potentially reflect the fugacity of oxygen (fO2), a fundamental thermodynamic parameter, that prevailed when hibonite first formed or last equilibrated. However, the Ti content and its oxidation state in hibonite does not depend solely on fO2. The composition of the system is, thus, a key factor in changing the Ti4+/ΣTi ratio of the structure concurrently with the fO2. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the energetics, complex crystal chemistry, and substitution reactions of hibonite in order to relate the Ti oxidation state to the fO2 of the nebular system in which condensed. To that end, we report DFT calculations (0 K) to determine the ground-state energies and the enthalpy of formation (ΔH) of hibonite solid solutions that span the range reported in meteorites. Our results show that coupled substitution is energetically favored (ΔH=-96.70 kJ.mol-1, from oxides). In comparison, the formation of oxygen vacancies is energetically unfavorable, but similar to Ti3+ direct substitution for Al3+ (ΔH=∼60 kJ.mol-1, from oxides), which is commonly observed in hibonite. It is therefore necessary to consider oxygen vacancies as a potential mechanism for controlling the incorporation of Ti3+ into hibonite, in addition to direct replacement reactions. We provide here the first reliable estimation of the formation enthalpies for the hibonite solid solution that includes solutes and point defects. The results presented herein constitute a significant advance towards the establishment of a comprehensive Gibbs free energy description of the hibonite solid solution, which is ultimately required for accurate modelling of its thermodynamic stability within the early solar nebula.

Validation of otolith daily increment formation and early growth analysis of Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)

The Japanese flounder is a vital economic species among East Asian released and cultured fish. Here, we sought to validate daily increment formation and analyze the early morphological development of sagittal otoliths and lapillus in Japanese flounder larvae and juveniles over 50 days. Our analysis focused on the otolith shapes, the number of daily rings present, and their length and width measurements. The results revealed that sagittal otoliths and lapillus formed before the fertilized eggs hatched. During the larval and juvenile stages, sagittae evolved gradually, transforming from nearly round to oval structures, eventually adopting arrow- or pear-shaped forms. Similarly, lapillus transformed from nearly round to mussel-shaped structures. The first daily ring became evident on the 5th-day post-hatching, demonstrating a daily periodicity during the larval phase. We observed a direct relationship between incubation days (D) and the number of daily otolith increments (n), expressed as D = n + 5. This deposition trend exhibited a daily periodicity for both sagittae and lapillus. We also noted exponential correlations between the length (Ls, μm) and width (Ws, μm) of the sagittae and the total length (TL, mm). Contrastingly, the lapillus measurements demonstrated linear correlations. Furthermore, a linear relationship emerged between the sagittae and lapillus lengths: Ll = 0.3028Ls + 28.534 (R2 = 0.9366). Additionally, we found a similar linear relationship between the sagittae and lapillus widths: Wl = 0.3791Ws + 21.508 (R2 = 0.9426). The formation pattern of daily increments in lapillus was notably more distinct than that in sagittae, making it highly suitable for age identification and group recognition. This study not only contributes to the field of fish ecology but also provides a foundational understanding for future research. It can assist in reconstructing early life histories and inferences about the spawning periods and grounds of stocked Japanese flounder.

Loss and Mourning in Early Childhood: The Role of Emotional Attunement in the Treatment of Complex Trauma

ABSTRACT In this paper I will present parent work and child analytic work on behalf of a boy with a significant early complex trauma history. He endured the divorce of his parents when he was two, his mother’s diagnosis with breast cancer when he was three, and then her death when he was five years old. In describing this work, I hope to convey how knowledge of psychoanalytic child development, utilized in the context of an emotionally attuned child analytic relationship, can facilitate the kind of “return and repair” process that supports insight and healing in such cases. The case provides a detailed consideration of the assessment and treatment of a child whose early relationships and attachment patterns left him the victim of chronic emotional misattunement, living in an environment of complex trauma.