Dyke Propagation Research Articles

Geology and structure of the Reykjanes volcanic system, Iceland

The Reykjanes Peninsula is a trans-tensional plate boundary with several volcanic systems from the centers of which fissure swarms extend to the NE and SW. The fissure swarms accommodate the extensional component, whereas north-south trending strike-slip faults accomodate the transform component. The fissure swarms release stress during volcano-tectonic episodes that occur at intervals of several hundred years. Stress is released by the strike-slip faults by microearthquake swarms at intervals of a few decades.The fissure swarms are segmented along their trend. The segments include a volcanic center with a clustering of fissure eruptions and extensional faults. A proximal zone of 20–40 km follows were faults become dominant with distance from the center. Linear anomalies of a high geothermal gradient extend further still, into the marginal area of Early Quaternary to Miocene rocks indicating dyke propagation for another 30–40 km beyond visible faults.The Reykjanes volcanic center is nested in a 5–6 km wide rift zone with boundary faults of just over 20 m visible throw. Volcanic production keeps pace with extension and subsidence to fill the rift. The last three volcano-tectonic episodes occurred at Reykjanes in the 13th century, about 2000 years ago and about 3200 years ago. The lavas from these three fissure eruptions cover >2/3 of Reykjanes by area, largely smoothing over faults of the rift floor. During the Weichselian glacial maximum the ice margin may have reached 75–100 km beyond Reykjanes. It had become ice free 14,500 years ago. There is evidence of at least 10 eruptions on the Reykjanes volcanic system since, of which the first ones were of lava shield type. A similar eruption frequency may have prevailed at Reykjanes during its postglacial time interval.There are three volcanic fissure zones within the Reykjanes center. The middle zone of 1.5 km2 hosts the main geothermal resource of the system. Recently the western zone proved to host an exploitable resource also. It may be restricted to a narrow zone of dykes. The reservoir temperatures of these two lie in the range 280–310 °C. The eastern zone has not proved productive so far. It has erupted olivine rich shield lavas on most of its trace whereas the others have erupted slightly evolved tholeiite. Feed zones in the main production zone have been correlated partly with the axis of the eastern of two tindars. They cluster also in near horizontal intervals which may suggest that density controlled offshots also play a role.

Petrology and geochemistry of the 2014–2015 Holuhraun eruption, central Iceland: compositional and mineralogical characteristics, temporal variability and magma storage

The 2014–2015 Holuhraun fissure eruption provided a rare opportunity to study in detail the magmatic processes and magma plumbing system dynamics during a 6-month-long, moderate- to large-volume basaltic fissure eruption. In this contribution, we present a comprehensive dataset, including major and trace elements of whole-rock and glassy tephra samples, mineral chemistry, and radiogenic and oxygen isotope analyses from an extensive set of samples (n = 62) that were collected systematically in several field campaigns throughout the entire eruptive period. We also present the first detailed chemical and isotopic characterization of magmatic sulfides from Iceland. In conjunction with a unique set of geophysical data, our approach provides a detailed temporal and spatial resolution of magmatic processes before and during this eruption. The 2014–2015 Holuhraun magma is compositionally indistinguishable from recent basalts erupted from the Barðarbunga volcanic system, consistent with seismic observations for magma ascent close to the Barðarbunga central volcano, followed by dyke propagation to the Holuhraun eruption site. Whole-rock elemental and isotopic compositions are remarkably constant throughout the eruption. Moreover, the inferred depth of the magma reservoir tapped during the eruption is consistently 8 ± 5 km, in agreement with geodetic observations and melt inclusion entrapment pressures, but inconsistent with vertically extensive multi-tiered magma storage prior to eruption. The near constancy in the chemical and isotopic composition of the lava is consistent with the efficient homogenization of mantle-derived compositional variability. In contrast, occurrence of different mineral populations, including sulfide globules, which display significant compositional variability, requires a more complex earlier magmatic history. This may include sampling of heterogeneous mantle melts that mixed, crystallized and finally homogenized at mid- to lower-crustal conditions.

Long-period seismicity reveals magma pathways above a laterally propagating dyke during the 2014–15 Bárðarbunga rifting event, Iceland

The 2014–15 Bárðarbunga–Holuhraun rifting event comprised the best-monitored dyke intrusion to date and the largest eruption in Iceland in 230 years. A huge variety of seismicity was produced, including over 30,000 volcano-tectonic earthquakes (VTs) associated with the dyke propagation at ∼6 km depth below sea level, and large-magnitude earthquakes accompanying the collapse of Bárðarbunga caldera. We here study the long-period seismicity associated with the rifting event. We systematically detect and locate both long-period events (LPs) and tremor during the dyke propagation phase and the first week of the eruption. We identify clusters of highly similar, repetitive LPs, which have a peak frequency of ∼1 Hz and clear P and S phases followed by a long-duration coda. The source mechanisms are remarkably consistent between clusters and also fundamentally different to those of the VTs. We accurately locate LP clusters near each of three ice cauldrons (depressions formed by basal melting) that were observed on the surface of Dyngjujökull glacier above the path of the dyke. Most events are in the vicinity of the northernmost cauldron, at shallower depth than the VTs associated with lateral dyke propagation. At the two northerly cauldrons, periods of shallow seismic tremor following the clusters of LPs are also observed. Given that the LPs occur at ∼4 km depth and in swarms during times of dyke-stalling, we infer that they result from excitation of magmatic fluid-filled cavities and indicate magma ascent. We suggest that the tremor is the climax of the vertical melt movement, arising from either rapid, repeated excitation of the same LP cavities, or sub-glacial eruption processes. This long-period seismicity therefore represents magma pathways between the depth of the dyke-VT earthquakes and the surface. Notably, we do not detect tremor associated with each cauldron, despite melt reaching the base of the overlying ice cap, a concern for hazard monitoring.

Density, Viscosity and Velocity (Ascent Rate) of Alkaline Magmas

ABSTRACT Three distinct alkaline magmas, represented by shonkinite, lamprophyre and alkali basalt dykes, characterize a significant magmatic expression of rift-related mantle-derived igneous activity in the Mesoproterozoic Prakasam Alkaline Province, SE India. In the present study we have estimated emplacement velocities (ascent rates) for these three varied alkaline magmas and compared with other silicate magmas to explore composition control on the ascent rates. The alkaline dykes have variable widths and lengths with none of the dykes wider than 1 m. The shonkinites are fine- to medium-grained rocks with clinopyroxene, phologopite, amphibole, K-feldspar perthite and nepheline as essential minerals. They exhibit equigranular hypidiomorphic to foliated textures. Lamprophyres and alkali basalts characteristically show porphyritic textures. Olivine, clinopyroxene, amphibole and biotite are distinct phenocrysts in lamprophyres whereas olivine, clinopyroxene and plagioclase form the phenocrystic mineralogy in the alkali basalts. The calculated densities [2.54-2.71 g/cc for shonkinite; 2.61-2.78 g/cc for lamprophyre; 2.66-2.74 g/cc for alkali basalt] and viscosities [3.11-3.39 Pa s for shonkinite; 3.01-3.28 Pa s for lamprophyre; 2.72-3.09 Pa s for alkali basalt] are utilized to compute velocities (ascent rates) of the three alkaline magmas. Since the lamprophyres and alkali basalts are crystal-laden, we have also calculated effective viscosities to infer crystal control on the velocities. Twenty percent of crystals in the magma increase the viscosity by 2.7 times consequently decrease ascent rate by 2.7 times compared to the crystal-free magmas. The computed ascent rates range from 0.11-2.13 m/sec, 0.23-2.77 m/sec and 1.16-2.89 m/sec for shonkinite, lamprophyre and alkali basalt magmas respectively. Ascent rates increase with the width of the dykes and density difference, and decrease with magma viscosity and proportion of crystals. If a constant width of 1 m is assumed in the magma-filled dyke propagation model, then the sequence of emplacement velocities in the decreasing order is alkaline magmas (4.68-15.31 m/sec) > ultramafic-mafic magmas (3.81-4.30 m/sec) > intermediate-felsic magmas (1.76-2.56 m/sec). We propose that SiO2 content in the terrestrial magmas can be modeled as a semi-quantitative “geospeedometer” of the magma ascent rates.

Subglacial volcanic activity above a lateral dyke path during the 2014–2015 Bárdarbunga-Holuhraun rifting episode, Iceland

The rifting episode associated with the Bardarbunga-Holuhraun eruption in 2014–2015 included the first observations of major dyke propagation under ice. Three shallow ice depressions (ice cauldrons) with volumes ranging from 1 to 18 million m3 formed in Dyngjujokull glacier above the 48-km-long lateral path of the magma, at 4, 7 and 12 km from the northern glacier edge. Aircraft-based radar altimetry profiling was used to map the evolution of the cauldrons and construct a time series of the heat transfer rates. Out of the three scenarios explored: (1) onset or increase of hydrothermal activity, (2) convection within vertical fissures filled with water overlying intruded magma and (3) subglacial eruptions, the last option emerges as the only plausible mechanism to explain the rapid heat transfer observed in a location far from known geothermal areas. The thermal signals at two of the cauldrons are consistent with effusive subglacial eruptions. The formation of the northernmost cauldron was more rapid, indicating faster heat transfer rates. Radio-echo sounding data indicate that in contrast to the other two cauldrons, an intrusion of eruptive products occurred into the glacier, reaching 50–60 m above bedrock with the increased magma-ice contact explaining the more rapid heat transfer. We propose that the ~2-m widening associated with graben formation increased the groundwater storage capacity of the bedrock, creating space for the meltwater to be stored, explaining the absence of meltwater pulses draining from Dyngjujokull.

Tremor-rich shallow dyke formation followed by silent magma flow at Bárðarbunga in Iceland

The Barðarbunga eruption in Iceland in 2014 and 2015 produced about 1.6 km3 of lava. Magma propagated away from Barðarbunga to a distance of 48 km in the subsurface beneath Vatnajokull glacier, emerging a few kilometres beyond the glacier’s northern rim. A puzzling observation is the lack of shallow (<3 km deep), high-frequency earthquakes associated with shallow dyke formation near the subaerial and subglacial eruptive sites, suggesting that near-surface dyke formation is seismically quiet. However, seismic array observations and seismic full wavefield simulations reveal the presence and nature of shallow, pre-eruptive, long-duration seismic tremor activity. Here we use analyses of seismic data to constrain the relationships between seismicity, tremor, dyke propagation and magma flow during the Barðarbunga eruption. We show that although tremor is usually associated with magma flow in volcanic settings, pre-eruptive tremor at Barðarbunga was probably caused by swarms of microseismic events during dyke formation, and hence is directly associated with fracturing of the upper 2–3 km of the crust. Subsequent magma flow in the newly formed shallow dyke was seismically silent, with almost a complete absence of seismicity or tremor. Hence, we suggest that the transition from temporarily isolated, large, deep earthquakes to many smaller, shallower, temporally overlapping earthquakes (<magnitude 2) that appear as continuous tremor announces the arrival of a dyke opening in the shallow crust, forming a pathway for silent magma flow to the Earth’s surface. Magma movement is thought to trigger volcanic tremor. However, analysis of seismic data suggests that tremor prior to the Barðarbunga eruption in Iceland instead marked the crust cracking open, whereas subsequent magma flow was seismically silent.

Timing and genesis of the Karoo-Ferrar large igneous province: New high precision U-Pb data for Tasmania confirm short duration of the major magmatic pulse

The Karoo-Ferrar igneous province is one of the largest igneous provinces on Earth. It extends from South Africa, along the Trans-Antarctic Mountains to Tasmania and South Australia. Reconstruction of the continents back to the Gondwana configuration in the Early Jurassic reveals a total length of the Karoo-Ferrar province of >5000km. New isotope dilution thermal ionization mass spectrometry (ID-TIMS) single grain U-Pb ages for zircon and baddeleyite from Tasmanian dolerites combined with ID-TIMS literature single grain U-Pb ages from the Ferrar and Karoo suites are consistent with the major pulse of synchronous magmatism throughout the province lasting about 1Ma or less for the major pulse of magmatism at the time of the Toarcian mass extinction event. We argue that the mechanism of synchronization of magmatism over such a short period of time along such a long distance is the major question which has to be answered in search of the correct model for the origin of the Karoo-Ferrar large igneous province. It cannot be reconciled with the lower mantle plume head model with the plume impingement beneath the Karoo. Plume material could not spread beneath the lithosphere at a rate of ~5–10m/yr (5000km per 0.5–1Myr), at least based on the current knowledge of the mantle physical properties. It seems unlikely that the entire Karoo-Ferrar large igneous province formed due to long distance magma migration through dykes from the same mantle plume irrespective on the proposed plume centre location. In such case, magma would have had to cross the boundaries (and thus weakness zones) between three future continents. In the framework of the dyke propagation model we would expect dykes to follow these weakness zones, not cross them. In addition to this, the Karoo and Ferrar contain geochemically different igneous rocks, which were not formed from the same magma source, preventing interpretations based on one single plume. Both the Karoo and Ferrar contain low-Ti tholeiites, which are similar by their trace element patterns to modern arc analogues – the Central Andes and Kamchatka, respectively. Thus, our preferred model for the origin of the Karoo-Ferrar large igneous province is associated with subduction of the Phoenix plate beneath the southern Gondwana. Probably, deep slab dehydration at the depth of the mantle transition zone modulated surface volcanism or the Toarcian tectonic event triggered voluminous but short-term melting of mantle, which was metasomatized by subduction-derived fluids.

Dyke emplacement in the Narmada rift zone and implications for the evolution of the Deccan Traps

Abstract The Deccan Large Igneous Province of India is the product of fissure eruptions, and contains vast lava fields and dyke–sill networks. It is associated with several rift zones in peninsular India, which reflect pre-existing major weaknesses in the Indian lithosphere. In rift-zone eruptions, magma is normally transported to the surface through dykes. However, some injected dykes do not reach the surface but are arrested at depth in the rift zone due to mechanical heterogeneity and anisotropy, or insufficient magma pressure. In the present work, the effects of mechanical layering and regional tension on dyke emplacement in the Narmada rift zone are studied. The results indicate that the distribution of maximum principal tensile stresses was altered by mechanical layering and/or regional tension, which has led to variations in potential dyke propagation pathways. Studies on dyke evolution and emplacement in the Narmada rift zone indicate four evolutionary stages: stage I – arrival of a mantle plume and pre-volcanic extension; stage II – formation of shallow magma chambers; stage III – vertical dyke injection and fissure eruption; and stage IV – the ‘blanket effect’ and lateral dyke propagation.

Tracking timescales of short-term precursors to large basaltic fissure eruptions through Fe–Mg diffusion in olivine

Petrological constraints on the timescales of pre-eruptive crystal storage and magma degassing provide an important framework for the interpretation of seismic, geodetic and gas monitoring data in volcanically active regions. We have used Fe–Mg diffusion chronometry in 86 olivine macrocrysts from the AD 1783–1784 Laki eruption on Iceland's Eastern Volcanic Zone to characterise timescales of crystal storage and transport in the lead-up to this eruption. The majority of these olivines have core compositions of Fo<76, and rim compositions in the range Fo69–Fo74 that are close to equilibrium with the Laki melt. Diffusion modelling using the greyscale intensity of backscattered electron images as a proxy for olivine composition reveals that the most probable Fe–Mg diffusion timescale for Laki olivines is 7.8 days, which reflects the characteristic olivine residence time in the carrier melt prior to eruption. A small population of Fo>81 olivines record Fe–Mg diffusion timescales of ∼124 days; these crystals are likely to have formed in mid-crustal magma chambers, been transferred to storage at shallower levels and then entrained into the Laki melt prior to eruption. Typical Fe–Mg diffusion timescales of 6–10 days are shorter than the average time interval between discrete episodes of the Laki eruption, indicating variable or pulsed disaggregation of stored crystals into the carrier liquid prior to the onset of each episode. The diffusion timescales coincide with historical accounts of strong and frequent earthquakes in southeast Iceland, which we interpret as being associated with mush disaggregation related to melt withdrawal and the initiation of dyke propagation from a crustal magma reservoir at ∼6±3 km depth to the surface. We calculate pre-eruptive CO2 fluxes of 2–6 Mt d−1, assuming a pre-eruptive CO2 outgassing budget of 189.6 Mt for the Laki eruption and a constant rate of CO2 release in the 6–10 days preceding each eruptive episode. Our dataset indicates that petrological constraints on the timescales of magmatic processes occurring in the days leading up to historic eruptions may enhance our ability to forecast the onset of future large eruptions, both in Iceland and further afield.

How the differential load induced by normal fault scarps controls the distribution of monogenic volcanism

AbstractUnderstanding shallow magma transfer and the related vent distribution is crucial for volcanic hazard. Here we investigate how the stress induced by topographic scarps linked to normal faults affects the distribution of monogenic volcanoes at divergent plate boundaries. Our numerical models of dyke propagation below a fault scarp show that the dykes tend to propagate toward and erupt on the footwall side. This effect, increasing with the scarp height, is stronger for dykes propagating underneath the hanging wall side and decreases with the distance from the scarp. A comparison to the East African Rift System, Afar and Iceland shows that (1) the inner rift structure, which shapes the topography, controls shallow dyke propagation; (2) differential loading due to mass redistribution affects magma propagation over a broad scale range (100–105 m). Our results find application to any volcanic field with tectonics‐ or erosion‐induced topographic variations and should be considered in any volcanic hazard assessment.

The Mull Paleocene dykes: some insights into the nature of major dyke swarms

At about 1000 km long and with a magmatic volume exceeding 850 km 3 , the Paleocene Mull Dyke Swarm qualifies as a giant dyke swarm. As such, it offers important insights into the nature of such swarms. Magma flowage laterally from the Mull Central Complex is supported by evidence of recent magma flowage in rift-related volcanic areas. Conduits were frequently used by more than one magma pulse at different times. Pre-heating of conduits by basaltic magma enabled salic magmas to propagate for &gt;400 km from Mull. The Southern Upland Fault had a major influence on dyke propagation in the southern sector of the swarm, variably arresting magma migration or diverting magma vertically or laterally, in one case for 16 km laterally. A significant role for crustal heterogeneity in controlling dyke dynamics is advocated. Recent models point to important interactions between the dykes and adjacent Paleocene central complexes. The dyke swarm can potentially contribute significant information on the evolution of the Mull plumbing system, such as the formation of compositional zoning and the role of magma input in chamber rupture.

Triggered earthquakes suppressed by an evolving stress shadow from a propagating dyke

The role of static versus dynamic stresses in earthquake clusters is unclear. Analysis of earthquakes triggered by a dyke intrusion at an Icelandic volcano unambiguously demonstrates that static stresses are important for earthquake clustering. Large earthquakes can generate small changes in static stress: increases that trigger aftershock swarms, or reductions that create a region of reduced seismicity—a stress shadow1,2. However, seismic waves from large earthquakes also cause transient dynamic stresses that may trigger seismicity3,4. This makes it difficult to separate the relative influence of static and dynamic stress changes on aftershocks. Dyke intrusions do not generate dynamic stresses, so provide an unambiguous test of the stress shadow hypothesis. Here we use GPS and seismic data to reconstruct the intrusion of an igneous dyke that is 46 km long and 5 m wide beneath Barðarbunga Volcano, central Iceland, in August 2014. We find that during dyke emplacement, bursts of seismicity at a distance of 5 to 15 km were first triggered and then abruptly switched off as the dyke tip propagated away from the volcano. We calculate the evolving static stress changes during dyke propagation and show that the stressing rate controls both the triggering and then suppression of earthquake rates in three separate areas adjacent to the dyke. Our results imply that static stress changes help control earthquake clustering. Similar small static stress changes may be important for triggering seismicity near geothermal areas, regions being hydrofractured and deflating oil and gas fields.

Seismic footprints of shallow dyke propagation at Etna, Italy.

One of the key issues in forecasting volcanic eruptions is to detect signals that can track the propagation of dykes towards the surface. Continuous monitoring of active volcanoes helps significantly in achieving this goal. The seismic data presented here are unique, as they document surface faulting processes close (tens to a few hundred meters) to their source, namely the dyke tip. They originated nearby - and under - a seismic station that was subsequently destroyed by lava flows during eruptive activity at Etna volcano, Italy, in 2013. On February 20, a ~600 m-long and ~120 m wide NW-SE fracture field opened at an altitude between 2750 and 2900 m. The consequent rock dislocation caused the station to tilt and offset the seismic signal temporarily. Data acquisition continued until the arrival of the lava flow that led to the breakdown of the transmission system. Shallow ground fracturing and repeated low-frequency oscillations occurred during two stages in which the seismic signal underwent a maximum offset ~2.57 × 104 nm/s. Bridging instrumental recordings, fieldwork and conceptual modelling, these data are interpreted as the seismic footprints of a magmatic dyke intrusion that moved at speed ~0.02 m/s (first stage) and 0.46 m/s (second stage).

The ascent of kimberlite: Insights from olivine

Olivine xenocrysts are ubiquitous in kimberlite deposits worldwide and derive from the disaggregation of mantle-derived peridotitic xenoliths. Here, we provide descriptions of textural features in xenocrystic olivine from kimberlite deposits at the Diavik Diamond Mine, Canada and at Igwisi Hills volcano, Tanzania. We establish a relative sequence of textural events recorded by olivine during magma ascent through the cratonic mantle lithosphere, including: xenolith disaggregation, decompression fracturing expressed as mineral- and fluid-inclusion-rich sealed and healed cracks, grain size and shape modification by chemical dissolution and abrasion, late-stage crystallization of overgrowths on olivine xenocrysts, and lastly, mechanical milling and rounding of the olivine cargo prior to emplacement. Ascent through the lithosphere operates as a “kimberlite factory” wherein progressive upward dyke propagation of the initial carbonatitic melt fractures the overlying mantle to entrain and disaggregate mantle xenoliths. Preferential assimilation of orthopyroxene (Opx) xenocrysts by the silica-undersaturated carbonatitic melt leads to deep-seated exsolution of CO2-rich fluid generating buoyancy and supporting rapid ascent. Concomitant dissolution of olivine produces irregular-shaped relict grains preserved as cores to most kimberlitic olivine. Multiple generations of decompression cracks in olivine provide evidence for a progression in ambient fluid compositions (e.g., from carbonatitic to silicic) during ascent. Numerical modelling predicts tensile failure of xenoliths (disaggregation) and olivine (cracks) over ascent distances of 2–7 km and 15–25 km, respectively, at velocities of 0.1 to >4 m s−1. Efficient assimilation of Opx during ascent results in a silica-enriched, olivine-saturated kimberlitic melt (i.e. SiO2 >20 wt.%) that crystallizes overgrowths on partially digested and abraded olivine xenocrysts. Olivine saturation is constrained to occur at pressures <1 GPa; an absence of decompression cracks within olivine overgrowths suggests depths <25 km. Late stage (<25 km) resurfacing and reshaping of olivine by particle–particle milling is indicative of turbulent flow conditions within a fully fluidized, gas-charged, crystal-rich magma.

Thermoelastic properties of the Rotokawa Andesite: A geothermal reservoir constraint

Knowledge of the thermal properties of geothermal reservoir rocks is essential to constraining important engineering concerns such as wellbore stability, reservoir forecasting and stimulation procedures. The thermo-mechanical evolution of geological material is also important to assess when considering natural processes such as magmatic dyke propagation, contact metamorphism and magma/lava emplacement and cooling effects. To better constrain these properties in the geothermal reservoir, thermal measurements were carried out on core samples from production wells drilled in the Rotokawa Andesite geothermal reservoir, located in the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Linear thermal expansion testing, thermogravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry were used, employing experimental heating rates of 2, 5 and 20°C/min. Thermal property analyses can elucidate whether thermal expansion values measured under varied heating (and cooling) rates are rate dependent and if thermo-chemical reactions influence the resultant expansivity. Measured thermal expansion coefficients of the Rotokawa Andesite are shown not to be heating rate dependent. We have also found that significant thermochemical reactions occur during heating above 500°C resulting in non-reversible changes to the thermomechanical properties. The combined thermogravimetric, calorimetric and thermomechanical analysis allows insight to the reactions occurring and how the thermomechanical properties are affected at high temperature. We incorporated results of tensile strength testing on the Rotokawa Andesite to apply our thermal property measurements to a one-dimensional thermal stress model. The developed model provides a failure criterion for the Rotokawa Andesite under thermal stress. The importance of this study is to further understand the critical heating and cooling rates at which thermal stress may cause cracking within the Rotokawa reservoir. Thermal cracking in the reservoir can be beneficial in reservoir stimulation procedures, but also poses potential risk to wellbore stability, so constraining the conditions at which this can occur can be beneficial to resource utilization.

An experimental investigation of dyke injection under regional extensional stress

AbstractDyke injection is a fundamental process of magma transport in the crust, occurring in all tectonic settings. The effect of extensional stress regimes on dyke injections is particularly important to understanding a wide spectrum of processes including continental rifting and volcanic activity. Yet dyke injection in extensional regimes has been relatively understudied. In addition, the effect of dyke‐dyke interaction modifying the surrounding stress field and leading to dyke rotation about the vertical axis has not been addressed. We present the results from 23 laboratory analogue experiments investigating lateral dyke injections in a remote extensional stress field. This study is unique in that it addresses the effect of both extension and dyke‐dyke interaction on the lateral propagation and rotation of dykes. The experiments study the interrelationship between successive lateral dyke injections by examining dyke injection thickness, injection spacing, injection orientation, extension, and structural relationship. A relationship between the rotation angle between two successive intrusions and the distance separating them under given extensional stress conditions is established. The rotation angle depends on two dimensionless numbers: the ratio of fluid overpressure of the first injection and remote tensile stress, and the ratio of the spacing between injections and the height of the first intrusion. The experiments show how the stress field is perturbed by an intrusion and how the remote stress field is locally relieved by this intrusion. The results show furthermore that measuring or estimating the rotation angles between successive intrusions within rift zones allows the spatial distribution of these intrusions to be estimated. In the case of the actively spreading Red Sea rift in Afar, Ethiopia, we find that the vast majority of the dykes are predicted to intrude within 10 km of each other and most frequently between 4 and 5 km, in good agreement with independent geophysical observations.

Physical analogue modelling of Martian dyke-induced deformation

Abstract The Tharsis region of Mars is characterized by large volcanic and tectonic centres that have been active throughout Martian geological history, including distinct sets of graben that extend radially for distances of hundreds to thousands of kilometres. Formation of these graben has been attributed to crustal extension and/or dyke propagation. Physical analogue models using layered sand and liquid paraffin wax were constructed to test the magnitude and style of deformation in the host rock associated with dyke injection. A variety of igneous morphologies was produced, including dykes and plugs. Results suggest that, in the absence of pre-existing faults, vertical dykes do not produce significant deformation in the surrounding rock. Deformation associated with other magmatic intrusions produced primarily contractional features rather than extensional features, similar to previous numerical studies and terrestrial field investigations.

Off-rift volcanism in rift zones determined by crustal unloading

When continents are stretched over a long period of time, deep elongated rift valleys form at Earth’s surface and zones of ponded magma, centred beneath the rift, form at the crust–mantle boundary1, 2. Ascending magma sometimes erupts within the rift valley3, 4 or, counterintuitively, at volcanic fields away from the rift valley that are offset by tens of kilometres from the source of magma at depth5, 6, 7, 8. The controls on the distribution of this off-rift volcanism are unclear. Here we use a numerical model of magmatic dyke propagation during rifting to investigate why some dykes reach the surface outside the rift valley, whereas others are confined to the valley. We find that the location of magmatism is governed by the competition between tectonic stretching and gravitational unloading pressure, caused by crustal thinning and faulting along the rift borders. When gravitational unloading dominates over tectonic stretching forces, dykes ascending from the ponded magma are steered towards the rift sides, eventually causing off-rift eruptions. Our model also predicts the formation of stacked magma sills in the lower crust above the magma-ponding zone, as well as the along-rift propagation of shallow dykes during rifting events, consistent with observations of magmatism and volcanism in rift zones globally. We conclude that rift topography-induced stress changes provide a fundamental control on the transfer of magma from depth to the surface.

Magma flow and palaeo-stress deduced from magnetic fabric analysis of the Álftafjörður dyke swarm: implications for shallow crustal magma transport in Icelandic volcanic systems

Abstract Neogene regional mafic dykes extending north of the Álftafjörður central volcano in east Iceland are studied to test models of dyke swarm emplacement at spreading ridges. This is accomplished by using anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility to define fossilized magma flow regimes. The imbrication of the foliation plane, defined by the minor susceptibility axis, is used as an indicator of the flow direction. Contemporaneous shear resolved on the dyke walls may modify a pure flow-induced fabric and such shear regimes are therefore retracted. The magma flow and palaeo-stress resolved on the dykes are determined in 13 of 24 dykes. The magma flow is interpreted as subhorizontal and northwards directed away from the central volcano for nine dykes, and found to be vertical in three cases. The preferentially subhorizontal magma flow in the Álftafjörður swarm suggests that dyke propagation in this type of Icelandic volcanic system originates in shallow crustal magma chambers. The regional tectonic palaeo-stress field is deduced to cause oblique spreading across the Álftafjörður dyke swarm and govern a subhorizontal dextral shear component on the dyke planes during propagation. This interpretation is not in conflict with the left-stepping en echelon trend distribution of individual dykes relative to the trend of the swarm.

Great challenges in structural geology and tectonics

Successful scientific theories provide theoretical understanding for reliable deterministic or probabilistic forecasting of events. In the past decades the volume of data obtained within the fields of structural geology and tectonics has increased enormously, but the theoretical understanding of the processes that generate these data has not advanced at the same rate. For example, after decades of research we still do not have successful theories explaining the size distribution of the Earth’s tectonic plates or the processes that form, drive, and destroy them. Subduction zones certainly contribute to these processes; yet we do not know how these zones initiate. While the largest earthquakes occur in subduction zones, much of the fault slip is aseismic (“creep”). We do not know the conditions that determine whether slip on a fault will be seismic or aseismic, or small or large. Similarly, with dense geodetic and seismic networks on many active volcanoes, we should be able to make a reliable forecast of the propagation path of an injected dyke— but normally we cannot. Dyke propagation and fault propagation depend on the energy available to drive these fractures. Our present knowledge of the energy budget of volcanic and seismic zones, however, is so limited that we cannot assess the maximum energies available for driving dyke-fed eruptions and earthquake faults. The topics listed here are among the great challenges in structural geology and tectonics. They all relate to the physics behind the observational data. Answering satisfactorily any of these challenges would constitute a major breakthrough in structural geology and tectonics.