Dung Of Animals Research Articles

地域経済と廃棄物循環

The purpose of this study is to examine the characteristics of interdependence between flow of goods and waste in regional economy focusing in Hokkaido region. We apply the input-output model considering waste generated from regional industry and waste treatment sectors. Estimating waste input-output table for Hokkaido region that consists of 38 industrial sectors and three waste disposal methods, we find as follows :First, one unite of final demand for “cement, glass product, miscellaneous stone & clay products”, “beverage, feeds & tobacco” contributes to reducing waste generation for landfill. And that for “pulp, paper & processed paper products” contributes to reducing waste generation for both landfill and incineration in the case of estimation including marketable waste.Second, although the coefficients of direct landfill requirement are negative to produce “precision machinery”, “construction”, “gas supply, stream & hot water supply”, “public service”, “other services”, its inverse counterparts are positive. It means that one unite of final demand for the products indirectly requires landfill service.Third, compared our results with the waste input-output analysis in Japan, we find that the operation of industry such as “agriculture”, “pulp, paper & processed paper products”, “machinery of transportation”, “other manufacturing product (plastic products)” contributes to the reduction of waste for landfill in Hokkaido, although they induce the generation of waste for landfill in Japan.Difference in characteristics of the waste circulation is mainly caused by allocation matrix and input coefficients from the industries of using waste. To improve our method, it is necessary to separate the classification of waste treatment sector in more detail and to improve the estimation method of waste input matrix. It's also necessary to introduce dung and urine of animals generated from agricultural sector into our waste circulation process.JEL classification : Q51, Q53, R15

Myxomycete biodiversity of the Colorado Plateau

A rapid biodiversity assessment for myxomycetes (plasmodial slime moulds) was carried out during a two-week field trip to the Colorado Plateau (western U.S.A.). Due to the very arid climate of the region, the moist chamber culture technique formed a major part of the survey. A total of 1165 records belonging to 93 species and 1 variety from 27 genera was collected from the 433 moist chamber cultures prepared with the bark surface of living plants, litter and weathered dung of herbivorous animals. Only 31 specimens of 16 wood-inhabiting species were collected in the field, mainly at higher elevations. Subsequent moist chamber cultures produced numerous bark-inhabiting species that are usually considered to be rare, including Echinostelium coelocephalum, Protophysarum phloiogenum, and Macbrideola declinata. The most common litter-inhabiting species were Didymium mexicanum and Badhamia melanospora (mainly on decaying parts of Opuntia spp. and Agave spp.); the most abundant coprophilous species were Badhamia cf. apiculospora, Fuligo cinerea, Perichaena liceoides, and Licea tenera. Both, species richness and diversity, increase from sagebrush desert to pine-juniper open woodland and pine-oak woodland. The myxomycete biota of the Colorado Plateau displays a high level of similarity to those of other arid regions of the world (mean coefficient of community Cs = 0.67), differing considerably from temperate (mean Cs = 0.34), boreal (mean Cs = 0.49) and tropical biotas (mean Cs = 0.42).

Seeds dispersed in dung of insectivores and herbivores in semi-arid southern Africa

We investigated the incidence of endozoochory in the semi-arid South African Karoo shrubland and Kalahari savanna by dissecting and germinating seed from dung samples from a wide range of wild mammals and domestic livestock. Intact seeds occurred at a mean density of 1575 seeds kg−1in livestock air-dried dung and 3613 seeds kg−1in air-dried dung of indigenous animals. Seedlings emerged from dung at an average density of 153 kg−1air-dry dung. Seeds of Aizoaceae, Mesembryanthemaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Poaceae were abundant in the dung of wild and domestic herbivores as well as such ant- and termite-eating insectivores as aardvark (Orycteropus afer) and bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis). Seeds of fleshy-fruited shrubs occurred in dung of browsing herbivores and the bat-eared fox. Five non-indigenous weeds were found in the dung samples. Although the floras of the Kalahari and Karoo are considered to be largely wind and water-dispersed, endozoochory is a primary or secondary dispersal mechanism in many plant families and for many plant life-forms. Animals dispersed seeds of many species characteristic of fertile and disturbed habitats. In Mesembryanthemaceae, a family in which seeds are primarily dispersed very short distances by raindrops, endozoochory enables occasional long-distance dispersal.

The contribution of rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus L.) to soil fertility in semi-arid Spain

Degradation of land in vulnerable areas can be significantly reduced by the maintenance or establishment of plant cover and diversity. Animals can facilitate plant diversity by grazing, by dispersing seeds or by contributing, through excreta, to the heterogeneous distribution of nutrients in soil. We investigated the latter property by examining the effects of rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.) dung deposition on soil properties in three adjacent plant communities at a semi-arid site in south-east Spain. Rabbit faecal pellets had concentrations of total N and P comparable to dung of stock animals, with K and Mg somewhat lower, although decomposition rates at this site are evidently very low. There was no significant difference in pH, but conductivity and concentrations of organic C, N (as NH4 + and NO3 –), K, P and Mg in soils from rabbit latrines were significantly greater relative to controls in each community. Barley plants grown as a bioassay of soil fertility had significantly greater total biomass, and lower root : shoot ratios in latrine compared to control soils. There were differences among communities in conductivity and concentrations of N, P and organic C under latrines which were reflected in the bioassay. Although latrines only comprised approximately 0.1% of the ground surface area in each community, they make significant localised contributions to soil fertility and may therefore be important in establishing and maintaining plant cover.

Notes on British Species of Thecotheus (Ascobolaceae, Pezizales), with Reference to Other Species of the Genus

Summary. Notes on the taxonomy and nomenclature of British species of Thecotheus are presented. British records of T apiculatus should be referred to T keithii, and of T cinereus to T crustaceus. The occurrence of T holmskjoldii in the British Isles is confirmed, and a detailed description of that species based on a recent British collection is given. A key to the five known British species and discussion on other species of the genus are provided. The genus Thecotheus Boud. was proposed more than a century ago (Boudier 1869), but it was not widely accepted until its history was reviewed by Kimbrough (1966) and its generic status firmly accepted by Kimbrough & Korf (1967). The genus was placed in the family Pezizaceae Dumort., based on amyloid asci, colourless ascospores, and the presence in some species of callose-pectate spore ornamentation and spore sheaths or apiculi (Kimbrough & Korf 1967). Eckblad (1968) included Thecotheus in the family Thelebolaceae (Brumm.) Eckblad, as the tribe Theleboloideae Brumm. was elevated to family level. Aas (1992) considered Thecotheus to belong to Ascobolaceae Boud. ex Sacc. based on the amyloid asci, the ascus protrusion beyond the hymenium at maturity and the thick-walled ascospores when young. Kimbrough (in Dissing & Schumacher 1994) provided further evidence to support the placement of Thecotheus in Ascobolaceae. The pore-plugging mechanism of septum structure is considered very consistent in Ascobolaceae and the ascospore ontogeny and ascus apex are different from that of Pezizaceae. Thecotheus lacks the accumulation of epiplasmal pigment but the deposition of secondary wall material is like that of certain species of Ascobolus Pers. (see Dissing & Schumacher 1994). Most species of Thecotheus are coprophilous. They can be found on dung of herbivorous animals, especially horse, deer and sheep in British collections. However, other species grow on bare soil or on water-soaked twigs and wood. The genus is characterised by apothecia which are sessile, globose to subglobose or cylindrical, rarely pulvinate to lenticular at first, becoming cupulate to discoid, white, becoming grey, yellow, orange to brownish; ectal excipulum of textura angularis and medullary excipulum of textura intricata and textura globulosa; asci operculate, cylindric, 4- to 32-spored (rarely 64-spored), wall amyloid, protruding from the hymenium at maturity; ascospores ellipsoid, rarely subglobose, eguttulate, hyaline to pale yellow, smooth or ornamented with granules or warts, having polar

Dung-Inhabiting Fungi in the High School Biology Laboratory

It may seem to be an unlikely laboratory subject for a high school biology class, but the study of dung-inhabiting or coprophilous fungi can provide many rewarding activities that illustrate basic lab techniques and fundamental ecological concepts. The setup is inexpensive, easy to initiate and maintain, and provides many opportunities for refinement and development of new experiments. Dung samples incubated in a moist, covered container exposed to indirect light should support the growth of coprophilous fungi for at least several weeks. Numerous dung sources are possible, with common herbivorous mammals such as horses, cattle, sheep, rabbits and deer being the most accessible and productive. Dung collected from animals in the wild often provides the most diverse communities of fungi, but domesticated animals can also be used, especially if they are fed natural herbage. Dung can be collected ahead, particularly if travel brings the teacher or the student to a distant area with different animals. In this case, samples should be air-dried, put in air-tight containers, and kept in a cool place until water is added to activate spore germination. Small animals can be trapped, or pets can be fed natural herbage, so dung samples collected in captivity. Collection and incubation of the dung of carnivorous animals is not recommended, as these animals are likely to harbor the spores of fungi and various stages of invertebrate parasites potentially pathogenic to humans. The information on fungi associated with

Lethal and sublethal effects of ivermectin on the dung-breeding bettles Euoniticellus intermedius (Reiche) and Onitis alexis Klug (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae)

The lethal and sublethal effects of ivermectin residues in cattle dung on the two dung-breeding beetles Euoniticellus intermedius (Reiche) and Onitis alexis Klug were bioassayed in the laboratory. A single standard injection of cattle with ivermectin (200 μg kg −1) prevented adult emergence of E. intermedius from dung collected 2–7 days after treatment. Fewer beetles emerged from the dung of treated animals compared with the dung of control animals, collected 1 and 14 days after ivermectin injection. Adult emergence of O. alexis was reduced between 2 and 7 days after treatment. Dung from treated cattle prolonged the development of E. intermedius for 28 weeks and that of O. alexis for up to 21 weeks after injection. Specimens of E. intermedius that developed in dung collected 1 and 14 days after treatment were less productive than their controls in their first breeding week but not thereafter. It is suggested that cattle should be treated with ivermectin before or after the peak activity period of dung beetles to reduce effects on dung beetle populations.

The effect of faecally excreted ivermectin and fenbendazole on the insect colonisation of cattle dung following the oral administration of sustained-release boluses

The effects of faecal drug residues following the administration of anthelmintics in the form of sustained-release boluses, on dung-colonising Coleoptera and Diptera are reported. In blind field trials, pats of standard weight and size were prepared from the dung of cattle treated with an ivermectin (Ivomec SR Bolus®, MSD Agvet) or a fenbendazole (Panacur Bolus®, Hoechst) sustained-release bolus, and from a third control group of cattle that received no treatment. Pats were recovered after 7, 14, 21 and 42 days in the field and searched for invertebrates. There were no differences in the numbers of adult beetles found in the pats from the three treatment groups. Pats made from the dung of ivermectin-treated animals contained no larval Diptera Cyclorrhapha and significantly fewer larval Scarabaeidae than pats made from the dung of the other two groups. Furthermore, larval Scarabaeidae in the ivermectin pats were inhibited in their development. The pats from fenbendazole-treated animals contained similar numbers of larval Scarabaeidae and Diptera to the pats from untreated animals throughout the trial. At 42 days, the solid matter of the control and fenbendazole-containing cow pats was reduced to a crumbling, granular texture, while the pats from the ivermectin-treated animals were solid and compacted. Pitfall trapping, using traps baited with dung from the three groups, showed no significant difference between the numbers of adult Scarabaeidae attracted, though a trend towards higher numbers attracted to the dung of both anthelmintic-treated groups was evident. The results provide evidence of the toxic effects of excreted ivermectin on key dung-colonising families of insects, and show that fenbendazole lacks such toxic effects.

Kelleromyxa, a new generic name for Licea fimicola (Myxomycetes)

A new generic name, Kelleromyxa, is proposed for Licea fimicola. The genus differs from Licea sensu stricto in having a true capillitium consisting of short, unbranched threads and occasional longer branched threads. Peridium, capillitium and spores were examined by scanning electron microscopy. Calcium was detected in the peridium using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Re-evaluation of the type specimen indicates aberrant development of sporangia that contributed to inaccurate later species descriptions. A revised description based on many collections that typically produce constant morphological characters, including spores with unique markings, is provided. Kelleromyxa fimicola may have affinities with the order Physarales. It apparently is restricted to dung of herbivorous animals and the greatly and evenly thickened spore wall may be an adaptation to passage through the intestinal tract of herbivores. This study is based on a large number of laboratory moist chamber cultures using cow dung and agar cultures where phaneroplasmodia were observed migrating, growing and sporulating. Attempts to germinate spores failed.

Bio-efficacy of certain chitin synthesis inhibitors on dipterous flies and mites inhabiting dung of farm animals

Dipterous flies are considered among the most important pests for man and domestic animals health. The efficacy of four insect growth regulators on dipterous larvae and mites inhabiting dung of two farm anaimals (buffalo and sheep) are compared. Also, their effectiveness on the predacious mites are discussed.

Caves as sources of biotic remains in arid western North America

Caves have been a valuable source of paleoenvironmental information since the eighteenth century. In arid portions of western North America, caves have replaced small lakes as the primary source of biotic remains of Quaternary age. Packrat middens, dung of extinct animals, pollen, and archeological artifacts are excellently preserved. Aridity of the sediment, which is influenced by the cave's topographic position, internal morphology, and the regional climate, is the primary cause of good preservation. For stratigraphic pollen analysis, the best sites are those without internal moisture sources and without extensive bioturbation. Pollen samples should be taken near the center of the chamber, where eolian deposition is most rapid. Pollen concentrations in cave sediment are lower (2000–355,000 grains g −1) than in lake sediment, and pollen percentages in cave sediment differ from those in packrat middens due to additional transport mechanisms (on plant tissue and on the packrats themselves) for middens. Pollen diagrams for Bechan Cave, Utah, and Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona are presented as examples of cave sediment and packrat midden analysis.

The gut: the unobtrusive regulator of sodium balance.

THE GUT: THE UNOBTRUSIVE REGULATOR OF SODIUM BALANCE ALASTAIR R. MICHELL* It is almost axiomatic that the mammalian kidney is the major regulator of body sodium; unfortunately, at least in the case of herbivores, it may not actually be true. The consensus that renal physiology is the central issue in sodium metabolism has led to fragmentation of research, with little interaction between work on sodium excretion and that on behavioural regulation of salt intake [1], little interest in nonrenal aspects of excretion, and even less in factors that might regulate the major reserves of sodium in bone [2]. The importance of studying the variety of mechanisms contributing to the regulation of body sodium is illustrated by changes associated with the reproductive cycle in sheep. Unexpectedly , oestrus and oestrogens, instead of causing salt retention, are associated with a reduction of body sodium in this species; 3 days later there is sodium retention. Whatever the reason for this unusual pattern, it is achieved notjust by the kidney but by coordinated changes in both urinary and faecal sodium excretion and also in salt appetite [3]. Renal excretion of sodium is frequently eclipsed by faecal losses in diarrhoea; indeed alimentary dysfunction, certainly in animals, is a more frequent cause of dehydration and salt loss than is renal disease. Diarrhoea is fundamentally a failure of net intestinal sodium and water absorption sufficient to overwhelm the compensatory reserve capacity of the colon. Nevertheless, in healthy mammals faeces are widely regarded as a trivial route of sodium loss. Indeed, both clinically and experimentally , confident estimates of sodium excretion (and intake) are frequently based on urine samples alone. "Potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphate are the main inorganic minerals in faeces, with only traces of sodium . . ." [4]. The purpose of this article is to suggest that more than the authorship of this familiar view is Wrong and to emphasise that *Department of Medicine, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom.© by The University of Chicago. AU rights reserved. 003 1-5982/86/2902-0483SO 1 .00 Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 29, 2 ¦ Winter 1986 | 203 despite the importance of sodium loss in diarrhoea, little is known about the regulation of enteric sodium excretion in normality. Faecal Sodium Because sodium excretion has seemed synonymous with urinary excretion for so long, a substantial accumulation of data revealing that faecal sodium excretion predominates in many herbivores has virtually been ignored [5]. Indeed, almost invariably, even the authors have declined to comment, presumably deterred by this physiological delinquency and fearing that it might detract from more important aspects of their work. Yet, in 1748 Brownrigg was aware that "the dung of such animals as feed upon grass or grain doth also contain plenty of common salt" [6]. Faecal sodium concentration and/or output has been shown to exceed that in urine from sheep [5, 7-10], horses [11, 12], and cattle [13-16], while faecal sodium in the terminal colon greatly exceeds that in urine from cattle, sheep, donkeys, and camels [17]. Even pigs, which are not strictly herbivores, may on occasion excrete the majority of their sodium via faeces rather than via urine [18, 19]. Individuals do not universally conform to this pattern. For example, two studies show that the majority of dairy cows excrete sodium mostly via urine [20, 21]; it is notable in both studies, however, that among those on lower intakes (700 mmol/day or less), faecal excretors ofsodium outnumber urinary excretors by a ratio of 2 : 1 . Substantial amounts of sodium are needed to match the output in milk, but provided that any additional sodium does not exceed 300 mmol/day the data show that sodium is mainly excreted in faeces [20]. Even 300 mmol/day is twice the basic maintenance requirement [22]—thus, on moderate rather than exorbitant intakes of sodium, faecal excretion predominates. Similar conclusions emerge from consideration of the regression of faecal sodium excretion on sodium intake in cattle [22]. Sheep are particularly interesting because any group, regardless of diet, breed, or genetic red cell type, usually contains individuals consistently excreting most of their sodium intake renally or in their faeces. This deflects the argument that faecal sodium...

OnFimaria Dentata, A New Combination, with a Review of Synonyms and Comments onFimaria(Pezizales)

Ascophanus dentatus provides the oldest available name for a species of the Pezizales which has been described subsequently several times. Several generic names not currently well-defined are treated in relationship to this species. The new combination Fimaria dentata is proposed with the following synonyms: Cubonia bulbifera and Fimaria trochospora. Cubonia hyracis is given as a possible synonym and Pyronemella araneosa is treated as a misapplied name. The genus Cubonia is not a generic name available for this fungus and the genus Pyronemella is a synonym of Lasiobolus. A key to the 11 described species of Fimaria is given with comments. A number of taxa, all with spherical ascospores, have been described in the Pezizales from dung of various animals. To place properly the genera and species involved, a survey of a number of taxa was undertaken. Though the study was hampered by the lack of specimens and poorly preserved material, it has been possible to resolve some of the ambiguity surrounding these taxa. The taxa in? volved are discussed below. They are ordered by date of publication. A list of synonyms is given by way of summary.

A New Species of Badhamia with Smooth Spores

A smooth-spored species of Badhamia, formerly included in B. ovispora, is formally described and given the name B. semiannulata. Badhamia semiannulata is characterized by the presence of a columella, free spores that are ovoid with a partial ring along one side, and its apparent restriction to straw, decaying leaves, and dung of herbivorous animals. Badhamia semiannulata was grown on dung-extract agar from spore to spore and single-spore isolates yielding a phaneroplasmodium.

Effect of dung extracts on the fruiting of Pilobolus species

The ability of extracts of dung from rabbit, sheep, horse and cow to stimulate sporangial production in Pilobolus crystallinus and P. kleinii is compared. Increasing concentration of dung extract increases sporangial production in both species. There are differences, at present unexplained, in the concentration of substances supporting sporulation in the dung of the different animals. These are, in order of decreasing effect : For P. crystallinus : rabbit, horse, sheep, cow. For P. kleinii : horse, rabbit, cow, sheep.

The Taxonomic Status of Badhamia ovispora: A Myxomycete with Unique Spores

SUMMARYRaciborski's holotype of Badhamia ovispora was examined and compared with specimens collected and identified by European and North American monographers as B. ovispora. It is now apparent that Raciborksi's original description of B. ovispora was partially inaccurate and that at least two distinct species have been referred to this name. Badhamia ovispora is characterized by the absence of a columella, a capillitium consisting of a white calcareous meshwork, free spores that are uniquely reniform to allantoid in shape and marked with raised plaquelike areas, and its apparent restriction to decaying wood or bark. A smooth-spored species of Badhamia, formerly included under B. ovispora, is characterized by the presence of a columella, free spores that are ovate in shape with a low ridge or ring along one side, and apparent restriction to straw, decaying leaves, and dung of herbivorous animals.

Cotton seeds from the Neolithic in Egyptian Nubia and the origin of Old World cotton

During an excavation at Afyeh, Egyptian Nubia, in 1962, the Archaeological Survey of India recovered some plant remains. These contained, in addition to charred cereals, a few cotton seeds and dung of small animals. An anatomical study of the seed coat and hairs has revealed that this ancient Nubian cotton is similar, in the characters examined, to Gossypium arboreum var. soudanense and G. herbaceum var. africanum. Some hairs recovered from the dung indicate that the animals were fed with this cotton. The significance of this find is that the Nubians did not know at that time the potentiality of cotton hairs for making textile, but they apparently recognized the nutritive value of cotton seeds for animal feed. The hairs show an early stage of evolution from the wild to the cultivated cotton, having convolutions in the middle and no convolution towards the ends.

Studies in the Genus Thelebolus: Temperature Optima for Growth and Ascocarp Development

SUMMARY Evidence from cultural studies suggests that Thelebolus spp. (sensu Kimbr. & Korf) may be characterized as being either 'psychrophilic' or 'thermophobic.' Ascocarp size was greatly reduced at temperatures above those allowing for optimal growth (15-20 C). The ability of these fungi to grow and produce ascocarps at 0 C is related to their ecology. No variation was found in the number of spores per ascus in any of our isolates. An attempt is made to clear up some of the confusion that exists concerning the importance of ascospore number as a potential means of delimiting species within this genus. Methods are described by which many of these organisms were isolated into pure culture. Fungi placed in the genus Thelebolus are minute coprophilous discomycetes which may be found on the dung of both herbivorous and carnivorous animals. In the sense of Kimbrough and Korf (1967), Thelebolus may contain forms with one to many asci and from eight to hundreds of spores per ascus. Fungi assigned to this genus are characterized by the following: ascocarps which are enclosed at maturity; iodine negative asci with a slight to prominent ring below the apex and with the portion above this ring remaining hyaline in congo red; relatively thick-walled hyaline ascospores without de Bary bubbles. In accordance with this concept, many of the species formerly placed in Ascophanus, Ryparobius and Streptotheca are now included in Thelebolus.

Ecological Observations on Splachnum ampullaceum

Field observations on colonies of Splachnum ampullaceum Hedw. in Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, and laboratory cultures maintained for three years without decline in vigor indicate a possible interrelationship between nutrient and pH factors to explain the habitual decline of colonies in nature. The genus Splachnum has a distribution in North America ranging from the northern tier of states into the Canadian provinces and to Alaska. It is also found in scattered localities in the higher meadows of the western mountain ranges in the United States. The colonies of the plant, in various states of vigor, are usually found in association with the dung of herbivorous animals, especially that of cow, moose, and caribou. This investigation was initiated to determine if factors other than nutrition might play a role in the habitual decline of the colonies. Two species of Splachnum have been collected in Isle Royale National Park, Michigan: Splachnum ampullaceum Hedw., with the characteristic top-shaped hypophysis and the splotches of purple pigment, and S. rubrum Hedw., with the umbrella-like hypophysis and the characteristic red color. They are always found in close association with moose dung in the sphagnum bogs. Splachnum rubrum is in full fruit in late June, while the fruiting period for S. ampullaceum is late August and early September. Colonies of S. ampullaceum are more common than those of S. rubrum. On Isle Royale both species appear to be most abundant in Tollman Swamp, a sphagnum bog one-quarter mile northeast of the Rock Harbor Lodge on the north end of the main island. The colonies observed in the bog were in various states of vigor. Some were pure Splachnum while others were in various stages of decline as evidenced by the presence of Polytrichum strictum and Sphagnum spp. Observations have been made of Splachnum ampullaceum under cultural conditions during a period of three years. Cultures of the moss were obtained by two different procedures: 1) from spore germination and 2) from small sections cut from mature gametophytic plants. Two types of 2% agar media were used. One was Knops medium and the other was a medium composed of distilled water with the addition of 200 cc per liter of an extract from moose dung. This extract was obtained by heating a quantity of the dung in distilled water with the temperature of the solution kept below the boiling point. The solution was decanted and added to the agar and distilled water. The cultures were grown in 500-cc, wide-mouth 1 Department of Biology, Wisconsin State University, Stevens Point, Wisconsin. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.246 on Tue, 27 Sep 2016 05:48:22 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 1965] WHITMIRE: ECOLOGY OF SPLACHNUM 343 Erlemeyer flasks. The culture room was a walk-in refrigerator (500F) with three fluorescent tubes. The moss spores were dispersed over the surface of the growth medium and the flask was plugged with cotton. Germination of the spores took place in seven days. Three cultures were started and all proved successful. The small apical portions of the mature plants were first sterilized in 10% Chlorox solution to remove algal contaminants and then were placed on the surface of the agar medium. Five cultures were started. Growth continued from the apex of the plants and good regeneration of protonema and rhizoids occurred from the cut ends of all cultures except one. This failure was probably due to an excessive exposure to the Chlorox solution. Growth continued in both the spore culture and the plant culture until the entire bottom of the culture chambers was covered with mature gametophytic plants. The cultures were maintained without additional nutrient material for three years with no evident decline in the colonies. Sporophytes were produced in one of the spore cultures growing on the dung medium. These sporophytes were without the characteristic hypophysis. This does not seem to be unusual, however, since colonies in nature often produce a few sporophytes without the hypophysis. Sporophytes were not produced in the remaining cultures. There was no apparent difference in growth on the dung medium and on Knops medium. Colonies of Splachnum ampullaceum growing under natural conditions are pure after one season's growth. The second season finds encroachment upon the colonies by Sphagnum spp. and Polytrichum strictum which thrive under more acidic conditions. Three samples of fresh moose dung were found to have a pH of 6.5. Comparison of the vigor of the natural colony with that of plants in the controlled environment suggests that a lowering of the pH may cause a decline of the colonies in nature. The dung substrate undoubtedly takes on the pH characteristics of the surrounding bog. This acid condition would make it difficult for Splachnum to compete with Sphagnum and Polytrichum.

Opal phytoliths in some Victorian soils and "red rain" residues

Opaline bodies in certain Victorian soils have been regarded in the past as sponge spicules. It is now shown that the majority of these opaline bodies are the same as those developed in certain plants, hence they are recorded as opal phytoliths. This corrected identification of the opaline bodies is of fundamental significance in affecting certain aspects of the interpretation of the history of such components of soils. It is no longer necessary to consider these bodies of opal as sponge spicules carried into soils by wind transportation or other means. They are released from plants containing them and shed into the soils on the decomposition, or destruction during grass and forest fires, of phytolith-bearing vegetation, or sometimes via the dung of graminiferous animals. A few smaller phytoliths do become wind-borne, as evidenced by their occurrence in "red rain" and "red snow" residues. It is also shown that distilled water should always be used in treating soils for examination of their phytolith populations, because a small quantity of the smaller phytoliths (and diatoms) occurs in tap-water.