Dung Cake Research Articles

Life cycle assessment (LCA) of biogas versus dung combustion household cooking systems in developing countries – A case study in Ethiopia

In developing countries dung cakes combustion as a household cooking fuel is a common practice; however this traditional fuel comes along with related environmental issues. The objective of this study was to assess the environmental impacts of the substitution of dung combustion by biogas systems in rural Ethiopia. For this purpose, the method of life cycle assessment was applied according to ISO 14040 and 14044 standards with a consequential life cycle assessment approach. In terms of greenhouse gas emissions, the results demonstrate that mainly avoided methane and nitrous oxide emissions from dung drying and dung combustion lead to an environmental advantage of biogas systems in all scenarios of this study. Also the utilization of biogas digestate as organic fertilizer contributes considerably to savings of greenhouse gas emissions. The results indicate that about 13′542t of carbon dioxide equivalents can be saved annually in Ethiopia by the biogas plants installed in the years 2009–2013. Dung combustion causes indoor pollution by releasing high amounts of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter emissions and thereby having a direct negative impact on health. These emissions can be reduced considerably when using biogas instead of dung cakes for the provision of household cooking energy. Substituting traditional energy sources - dung cakes - with biogas systems, would lead to primary energy demand savings as well as potential environmental advantages regarding global warming, eutrophication, acidification, terrestrial eco-toxicity and human toxicity. Besides that, lower emissions from plant-available nutrients as well as particulate matter reduction, can create the basis for more efficient agricultural systems and potentially increase the health of the rural population. Nonetheless, to ensure a reduction of global warming potential it is mandatory building technically mature biogas plants with low methane leakage.

Household energy and recycling of nutrients and carbon to the soil in integrated crop‐livestock farming systems: a case study in Kumbursa village, Central Highlands of Ethiopia

AbstractSoil amendment with organic wastes in the Highlands of Ethiopia has been greatly reduced by widespread use of dung cakes and crop residues as fuels. This study assessed the interaction between household energy and recycling of nutrients and carbon to the soil using household survey, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, direct observations and measurements between 2014 and 2015 in Kumbursa village (Central Highlands of Ethiopia). All surveyed households were entirely dependent on biomass fuel for cooking, with production and consumption rates directly related to wealth status, which significantly varied (P < 0.001) among three farm wealth groups (poor, medium and rich). Crop residues and dung cakes accounted for 80(±3)% by energy content and 85(±4)% by dry mass weight of total biomass fuel consumption. Mean losses were 59(±2) kg ha−1 yr−1 nitrogen (109(±8) kg yr−1 per household), 13.9(±0.3) kg ha−1 yr−1 phosphorus (26(±2) kg yr−1 per household), 79(±2) kg ha−1 yr−1 potassium (150(±11) kg yr−1 per household) and 2100(±40) kg ha−1 yr−1 organic carbon (3000(±300) kg yr−1 per household). Rich farmers lost significantly more carbon and nutrients in fuel than farmers in other wealth groups. However, these losses were spread over a larger area, so losses per land area were significantly higher for medium and poor than for rich farmers. This means that the land of poorer farmers is likely to become degraded more rapidly due to fuel limitations than that of rich farmers, so increasing the poverty gap. The estimated financial loss per household due to not using dung and crop residues as organic fertilizer was 162(±8) US$ yr−1. However, this is less than their value as fuels, which was 490(±20) US$ yr−1. Therefore, farmers will only be persuaded to use these valuable assets as soil improvers if an alternative, cheaper fuel source can be found.

Eco-friendly management of Sitophilus oryzae and Rhyzoper thadominica in stored wheat at Pantnagar, Uttarakhand

he laboratory experiments were conducted to study the efficacy of some indigenous products such as plant products (chopped neem leaves ajwain seed powder, garlic capsules, saw dust), animal derivedproducts ( cow dung cake powder, cow urine) and inert materials ( ash powder, sand, talcum powder, salt) @ 2g/100g of wheat grains against rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Linn.) and lesser grain borer, Rhyzoper thadominica (Fab.) on stored wheat by undertaking various parameters viz., percent adult emergence, percent seed damage, per cent weight loss and per cent germination after six months of storage during April to October 2015. After 180 days of treatments, the minimum number of adults weevils of S. oryzae( 4.00, 6.00,7.67, 9.00, 9.67 and 10.33) were emerged in wheat grains treated with ash powder, sand, cow dung powder, talcum powder, ajwain seed powder and neem leaf powder, respectively with minimum grain damage (7.33 %, 8.67 %,11.67 % and 12.00 %) was observed on ash powder, sand, ajwain seed powder and talcum powder, respectively, whereas minimum weight loss (2.67 %, 3.67 %, 5.67 % and 6.67 %) was recorded on ash powder, sand, cow dung powder, talcum powder and ajwain seed powder, respectively. Similarly, the minimum number of adult beetles of R. dominica were emerged (2.00,2.33, 6.67,7.00 and 8.33) in ash power, sand, talcum powder, cow dung cake powder and ajwain seed powder, respectively with minimum grain damage (4.00 %,8.00 %. 8.67 % and 12.67 % and weight loss (1.33 %, 4.00 %, 7.33 % and 11.67 %) in sand, ash powder, talcum powder and cow dung cake treated wheat grains, respectively. It has been clearly observed that seed germination was not affected adversely in any treatment during six months of storage. The present study clearly revealed that these naturally occurring indigenous products could be used to manage the storage insect pests in wheat.

Assessing the extent and intensity of energy poverty using Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index: Empirical evidence from households in India

In this paper, we have made a comprehensive assessment of the extent and various socio-economic implications of energy poverty in India. Amartya Sens's capability approach to development underpins the analysis of household-level data taken from the India Human Development Survey-II (IHDS-II), 2011-12 using the Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index (MEPI). The overall results show that energy poverty is widespread in India and the existence of energy poverty also coincides with the other forms of deprivations such as income poverty and social backwardness. For example, Dalits (Lower Caste) and Adivasis (Tribal) are found to be extremely energy poor compared to the other social groups in India. The results also reveal that it is the responsibility of women to manage the domestic chores such as collection of firewood and making of dung cake in traditional Indian households. Inefficient use of such biomass fuels is found to cause health hazards.

Light Absorbing Properties of Brown Carbon Generated from Pyrolytic Combustion of Household Biofuels

ABSTRACTThe light absorption properties of brown carbon aerosols generated in a lab scale experiment from wood (Magnifera indica) and dung cake were studied. Mie theory along with experimentally derived values for imaginary refractive index was used to estimate mass absorption coefficient for the samples. It was observed that for both wood and dung cake major portion of brown carbon were generated above 150°C. The light absorbing properties of brown carbon from wood depended on temperature of pyrolysis which was not the case for dung cake. The spectral dependence of absorption for brown carbon samples was estimated in terms of Absorption Angstrom Exponent and found to be greater than 2. The brown carbon aerosols from dung cake pyrolysis were having twice the light absorbing potential (in the wavelength range 280 nm to 750 nm) than brown carbon emitted from mango tree wood pyrolytic combustion.

Calorific value and fuel wood consumption patterns of a forest plantation made by villagers at Kahinure (Distt Mau), Uttar Pradesh, India

In the present study, calorific value of different fuel wood biomass and its consumption patterns of the plantation forest in rural area of Kahinure (Distt Mau) Uttar Pradesh, India had been evaluated. A questionnaire survey of random sampling method was employed for 180 households to understand socio-economic conditions and energy use pattern for cooking purposes in the study area. The study reveals that fuel wood was largely utilised as noncommercial and cheap source of energy, followed by dung cake and agriculture residue. The highest calorific value was estimated by Prosopis juliflora (22.56 MJ/kg) followed in Terminalia arjuna (21.63 MJ/kg) and Pithecellobium dulce (20.67 MJ/kg), whereas the lowest value was found in Streblus asper (17.32 MJ/kg). About 65% of household energy consumption was in form of wood biomass fuel derived from the plantation forest. The cow dung was used by 22% households and agriculture residue by 12%. About 1.3% people used kerosene for cooking. Average cooking time was estimated at 4.46 h/day/family, and average value of fuel wood consumption was estimated at 4.5 t/family/year, whereas average market value of annual consumption of fuel wood had been calculated as Rs 8,700.00 per households. Due to poor socio-economic situations in the village, a significant amount of fixed carbon of plantation forest was used for cooking of food which could be saved by providing them renewable source of energy for cooking or cooking gas cylinders.

不同施肥处理对铁皮石斛生长及产量的影响

为明确不同肥料对铁皮石斛生长及产量的影响，以蚕沙、羊粪、牛粪及菜籽饼等为主要原料开展了铁皮石斛盆栽效果试验。结果表明，与对照(控释化肥)相比，蚕沙有机肥、羊粪菜饼复合有机肥及羊粪牛粪羽毛粉复合有机肥等处理对铁皮石斛新芽萌发、新芽长度均表现出了明显的促进作用,铁皮石斛生物量增加显著。 In order to clarify the effect of different fertilizers on the growth and yield of Dendrobium offici-nale, the pot experiment of Dendrobium officinale was carried out with silkworm excrement, sheep manure, cow dung and rapeseed cake as the main raw materials. The results showed that compared with the control, the organic matter of silkworm excrement, the compound organic fertilizer of rapeseed cake and sheep manure, the compound organic fertilizer of sheep manure, cow dung and feather powder could improve the germination of new buds, the length of shoots, and the biomass of Dendrobium officinale increased significantly.

A Metallurgical Study of Nāga Bhasma.

Background:The metal Nāga (Lead) is being used by Indians since ancient times. Its external and internal uses have been described in Caraka, Suśruta and other Ayurvedic Saṃhitā. According to most of the Rasa texts, Nāga Bhasma and its formulations are used in many diseases such as Prameha, Jvara, Gulma, Śukrameha etc.Objectives:In the present study, Nāga Bhasma was prepared by the traditional Puṭa method (TPM) and by the electric muffle furnace Puṭa method (EMFPM) and standardized using Metallographic studies. Doing so helps in the study of the microstructure of Nāga Bhasma and also helps in the identification of the metal particles along with the nature of compound formed during the Māraṇa (Bhasmīkaraṇa) process.Setting and Design:Different samples from initial raw material to final product of Nāga Bhasma were collected during the pharmaceutical process (1st, 30th and 60th Puṭa) from both methods i.e. TPM and EMFPM. Samples from both methods were studied using metallographic examination.Materials and Methods:The processing of the Nāga Bhasma (ṣaṣṭipuṭa) was done according to Ānanda Kanda[9] Samples from the raw material i.e. Aśodhita Nāga (raw Lead) and that processed after 1st, 30th and 60th Puṭa from both methods i.e. traditional Puṭa method (using heat from burning of cow dung cakes) and electric muffle furnace Puṭa method were taken. They were mounted on self hardening acrylic base. After careful polishing to obtain scratch free surface of product, they were used for metallurgical study.Conclusion:This study shows that traditional Puṭa method may be better than electric muffle furnace Puṭa method because of more homogeneous distribution of Lead sulphide in the Nāga Bhasma which is prepared by traditional method.

Daily Personal Exposure of Women Cooks to Respirable Particulate Matters during Cooking with Solid Bio-Fuels in a Rural Community of West Bengal, India

ABSTRACTAbout 60% of the Indian population are still relying on the traditional bio-fuels comprising of firewood, cow dung cake, crop residue etc. More than 85% of the rural households use these unprocessed bio-fuels for cooking purposes. Biomass fuel burning in daily cooking with traditional inefficient earthen stoves, in an un-vented kitchen, usually emits very high levels of smoke containing a complex mixture of a wide array of potentially hazardous pollutants, especially, particulate matters of varying size range. Size smaller than the PM10 particles, can penetrate further deep into the gas exchange region of the lungs and are termed as the respirable particulate matter with 50% cut point at 4 µm. Respirable particulate exposure assessment is particularly important in case of health hazard explanation because it can enter into the deepest of the lungs. Personal exposures to respirable particulate matters were assessed during cooking hours in the varied opened kitchens, considering the seasonal change and the meal preparation as covariates. Maximum variability for the particulate exposures was observed in the kitchens with openness range of 15–60%. Greater particulate exposures were found in the least opened kitchens. Two-way ANCOVA showed significant impact of seasonal change on the differential opened kitchens for personal exposure to respirable particulate matters. Tukey post hoc test reveals significant mean differences of respirable particulates in all pair-wise seasonal combinations and in all the pair-wise openness type combinations except for the < 15% and 15–30% opened kitchens. Winter season came out to be one of the significant predictor for the personal exposure prediction model. Across all the seasons and kitchen openness, average exposure concentration of the respirable particulate matters was 1445 µg m–3.

A novel approach for reduction roasting of iron ore slime using cow dung

The present study encompasses the first ever attempt of the usage of cow dung as a reductant in the reduction roasting of an Indian iron ore slime containing 56.2% Fe. The resultant reduced mass generated a concentrate of ~64% Fe with a weight recovery ~66% after being subjected to low intensity magnetic separation (LIMS). The optimum conditions of roasting as determined by the Taguchi statistical design were found to be temperature: 700°C, time: 45min and reductant to feed ratio: 0.25:1. Under similar conditions, the conventional reductant charcoal (fixed carbon: 93.5%, volatile matter: 1.2%) could result in a product of ~66% Fe at ~35% weight recovery proving cow dung (fixed carbon: 8.66%, volatile matter: 41.27%) to be a better reductant. The cow dung cake and some of the reduced products were subjected to integrated instrumental techniques such as X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope attached with an Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and Electron Probe Micro-Analysis (EPMA), which revealed the formation of new phases such as hercynite, corundum, iron aluminium silicate along with magnetite and wustite, at different levels of operating parameters, thereby explaining the role of different reduction variables.

Evaluation of the performance of improved biomass cooking stoves with different solid biomass fuel types

We have studied the performance of different types of improved solid biomass cookstoves (Two natural draft and one forced draft) in comparison to the traditional cookstove (control) while preparing a particular meal with a variety of solid biomass fuels (e.g. fuel wood, dung cake and crop residue). Five replicates of each type of cookstove and fuel were maintained. The study was conducted in an Indian rural kitchen. There was no significant difference in the indoor concentrations of PM2.5 and CO when natural draft and traditional cookstoves were used with any type of solid fuel. However, significantly lower concentrations of PM2.5 and CO were recorded with forced draft stoves compared to others. While cooking with different types of solid biomass fuels, the concentrations of PM2.5 and CO in the indoor environment were decreased by 21–57% and 30–74% respectively with the forced draft cookstove in comparison to the traditional cookstove. The fuel consumption, cooking duration and thermal efficiency of a particular stove to prepare a particular amount of food also differ depending on the type of the solid fuel used for the cooking purpose. The thermal efficiency of traditional, natural draft and FD cookstoves were in the range of 15–17%, 16–27% and 30–35% respectively for different types of solid biomass fuels. However, further studies on the performance of stoves are required based on the size and type of fuel wood or crop residues.

Direct radiative effect due to brownness in organic carbon aerosols generated from biomass combustion

We report the enhancement in the direct radiative effect due the presence of Brown carbon (BrC) as a part of organic carbon aerosols. The optical properties of organic carbon aerosols generated from pyrolytic combustion of mango tree wood (Magnifera Indica) and dung cake at different temperatures were considered. Mie codes were used to calculate absorption and scattering coefficients coupled with experimentally derived imaginary complex refractive index. The direct radiative effect (DRE) for sampled organic carbon aerosols was estimated using a wavelength dependent radiative transfer equation. The BrC DRE was estimated taking virtually non absorbing organic aerosols as reference. The BrC DRE from wood and dung cake was compared at different combustion temperatures and conditions. The BrC contributed positively to the direct top of the atmosphere radiative effect. Dung cake generated BrC aerosols were found to be strongly light absorbing as compared to BrC from wood combustion. It was noted that radiative effects of BrC from wood depended on its generation temperature and conditions. For BrC aerosols from dung cake such strong dependence was not observed. The average BrC aerosol DRE values were 1.53±0.76Wg−1 and 17.84±6.45Wg−1 for wood and dung cake respectively. The DRE contribution of BrC aerosols came mainly (67–90%) from visible light absorption though they exhibited strong absorption in shorter wavelengths of the UV–visible spectrum.

Soil Test Based Inorganic Fertilizer and Integrated Plant Nutrition System for Rice (&lt;i&gt;Oryza sativa&lt;/i&gt; L.) Cultivation in Inceptisols of Bangladesh

A field experiment was conducted at the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur during 2013 to study the potential of different organic materials in integrated plant nutrition system (IPNS) and soil test based (STB) inorganic fertilizer on the growth, nutrient uptake and yield of rice (&lt;i&gt;Oryza sativa&lt;/i&gt; L.): variety BRRI dhan29. Five treatments were laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The treatments were: (1) soil test based inorganic fertilizer (NPKS @ 138-7-80-3 kg ha-1), (2) cow dung (3 t ha-1), (3) poultry manure (2 t ha-1), (4) mustard oil cake (2 t ha-1) and (5) control. Organic fertilizers were applied on dry weight basis. Inorganic fertilizers were applied along with poultry manure (PM), cow dung (CD) and mustard oil cake (MOC) as IPNS. Soil test based STB fertilizer and PM in IPNS provided maximum grain yield of rice (6.11 t ha-1). Maximum plant height and tiller numbers were found in MOC treatment, while the numbers of filled grains were higher in STB fertilizer and PM treated plots. The application of different organic sources as IPNS significantly influenced the N, P, K and S uptake in rice. However, the highest N, P, K and S uptake were found in the PM treatment. The benefit cost ratio of different treatments followed the order of STB&gt;PM&gt;CD&gt;Control&gt;MOC. Considering yield potential and BCR, STB fertilizer and PM treatments were found economically profitable. However, from environmental point of view and sustainable management of soil health and crop productivity, application of PM and CD in rice-rice cropping system is recommended for rice cultivation.The Agriculturists 2016; 14(1) 33-42

Tourism Development and Energy Consumption Pattern in Langtang Valley of Nepal Himalayas

Langtang is one of the three major trekking destinations in Nepal. Tourism development in Langtang was started since after the establishment of Langtang National Park in 1976. Langtang is the nearest mountain trekking route from Kathmandu. About 12000 tourists visit annually in Langtang Valley. The Langtang valley from Syabrubesi to Kyanjing has rich physical, biological and cultural diversity which has been the center of tourism activities in Langtang region. This paper aims to trace out the tourism development trend and energy consumption pattern by hotels and lodges of the region. There are three major tourist destinations i.e. Lamahotel, Langtang, and Kyanjing in the Langtang valley where there are 49 hotels altogether. Initially, by 2000, hotels were concentrated at Lamahotel, then to Langtang village and finally to Kyanjing. Many tourist hubs in mountain including the Langtang valley use firewood as a major source of energy. The per bed/day firewood consumption is slightly varied in different altitude in the valley. The amount of firewood consumption decreases with increasing altitude and the distance from the source of firewood collection places. The annual firewood consumption is the highest in Lama hotel that is 457 kilogram/bed followed by Langtang with 460 kilogram and Kyanjing (400kg). It is important that the Bhattis consume more firewood. Hotels with less than 20 beds consume more firewood compared to big hotels suggests firewood energy threshold in the mountain tourism hub. LP gas and cow dung cake are other energy sources. The big hotels having more than 20 beds use more LG gas compared to smaller hotels.The Journal of Development and Administrative Studies (JODAS)Vol. 23(1-2), pp. 69-83

Future Scope of Solar Energy in India

Generation of solar energy has tremendous scope in India. The geographical location of the country stands to its benefit for generating solar energy. The reason being India is a tropical country and it receives solar radiation almost throughout the year, which amounts to 3,000 hours of sunshine. This is equal to more than 5,000 trillion kWh. Almost, all parts of India receive 4-7 kWh of solar radiation per sq metres. This is equivalent to 2,300–3,200 sunshine hours per year. States like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, and West Bengal have great potential for tapping solar energy due to their location. Since majority of the population live in rural areas, there is much scope for solar energy being promoted in these areas. Use of solar energy can reduce the use of firewood and dung cakes by rural household. Many large projects have been proposed in India, some of them are: i).Thar Desert of India has best solar power projects, estimated to generate 700 to 2,100 GW, ii). The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) launched by the Centre is targeting 20,000 MW of solar energy power by 2022, iii).Gujarat’s pioneering solar power policy aims at 1,000 MW of solar energy generation, and Rs. 130 billion solar power plan was unveiled in July 2009, which projected to produce 20 GW of solar power by 2020. Apart from above, about 66 MW is installed for various applications in the rural area, amounting to be used in solar lanterns, street lighting systems and solar water pumps, etc. Thus, India has massive plan for Solar Energy generation that may not only fulfill the deficit of power generation but also contribute largely in Green Energy Production to help to reduce the Climatic Changes globally.

Probabilistic single box approach for modeling PAHs associated with combustion aerosols in a typical indoor environment

Firewood, coal, dung cake, kerosene and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) are the most commonly used fuels for cooking and heating purposes in developing countries. Combustion of such fuels leads to high concentrations of pollutants in the indoor environment. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are emitted during residential combustion, and have carcinogenic and genotoxic properties. In this study, data from an experimental setup for estimation of emission rate of particulate-bound PAHs generated during combustion of such fuels are used. PAHs emission rates were used in a probabilistic single box model for prediction of time average particle associated indoor B(a)P equivalent (B(a)Peq) concentrations of PAHs resulting from typical Indian cooking. Model parameters such as fuel consumption rate, stove power and cooking time were also evaluated experimentally. Particle bound B(a)Peq PAH emission factor was found to be highest (0.96 mg kg−1) for dung cake, and lowest for LPG (0.48 mg kg−1) among tested fuels. The time averaged B(a)P equivalent concentrations in indoor environment were found to be 0.82, 0.45, 0.87, 0.30, and 0.14 μg m−3 for firewood, coal, dung cake, kerosene and LPG respectively. Results reveal that there was higher B(a)P equivalent concentration during combustion of biomass (dung cake, fire wood) as compared to fossil fuels (coal) and non-solid fuels (kerosene, LPG). Predicted time averaged indoor air B(a)Peq concentrations of PAHs were found to be much higher than the WHO indoor air guideline values for all tested fuels.

Alternate Uses of Cattle Dung for Sustainable Livelihood

An approach towards sustainable livelihood has been the agenda of national as well as international organizations in the growing world. Cattle dung can be disposed of in various ways and its commercial way of disposal such as by making cow dung cakes and farm yard manure can serve as a good source of income and sustainable livelihood. The present study was undertaken by taking a random sample of 60 dairy farmers from Haibowal Dairy Complex in the outskirts of Ludhiana city The study aims at lime-lighting such activities that are must for sustainable livelihood in the present context and are cheap and economical. Making cattle dung cakes and farm yard manure were two methods of cattle dung disposal that were mainly emphasized upon in the study. The Capitaloutput and Benefit-cost ratio of making cow dung cakes were 2.62 and 1.62 respectively and that of making farm yard manure were 2.38 and 1.37 respectively. An average farmer was earning 61227 and 61918 per year by making cow dung cakes and farm yard manure respectively. The study suggested to follow up the practice of using dung to make cakes and farm yard manure that would have been otherwise washed away. Furthermore local unemployed and poor families can make self help groups and take these practices to free themselves off the clutches of poverty.

Residential Biomass Burning Emissions over Northwestern Himalayan Region of India: Chemical Characterization and Budget Estimation

In the present study, we have determined the emission factors (EF) and estimated the emission of particulate matter (PM), organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), water soluble inorganic constituents (WSIC) and trace gases such as SO2, NO and NO2 from the combustion of biomass fuels (FW: fuel wood and DC: dung cake) used in rural sectors for cooking over Himachal Pradesh (HP), representing the Northwestern Himalayan region of India. The average EFs of PM estimated from FW and DC were 3.44 ± 2.38 and 11.43 ± 1.13 g kg–1, respectively. OC and EC emission ranged from 0.106 to 3.55 g kg–1 and 0.07 to 0.90 g kg–1, respectively for variety of biomass fuels. Total emission of PAHs from DC (44.37 mg kg–1) and FW (43.25 mg kg–1) noted in this study was almost similar. Similarly, the average EFs of NOx from FW and DC were 0.59 ± 0.49 g kg–1 and 0.34 ± 0.18 g kg–1, respectively. FWs have comparatively higher SO2 emission (average: 0.43 ± 0.38 g kg–1) than from DC (average: 0.23 ± 0.15 g kg–1). Among anionic inorganic constituents emitted from FW, maximum EF was noted for Cl– (0.30 ± 0.26 g kg–1). Similarly for cations, highest EF was noted of K+ (0.20 ± 0.09 g kg–1). Ca2+ and Na+ were the major cationic species identified in plumes of DC burning. Utilizing total annual consumption of biomass fuels and EFs of particulates and trace gases determined in the present study over HP and in the past study (Saud et al., 2011, 2012) over Uttarakhand, budget estimates of PM, OC, EC, TC, PAHs, SO2 and NOx have been determined over the Northwestern Himalayan region. Total annual emission estimated over Northwestern Himalayan region are as: PM (18.32 ± 9.53 Gg), OC (4.38 ± 2.31 Gg), EC (1.39 ± 0.55 Gg) and trace gases (SO2: 1.47 ± 1.0 Gg; NOx: 1.77 ± 1.31 Gg).

Studies on In situ Net N Mineralization in Soils from Mathura Tea Garden and Cultivated Land of North Bengal

Organic matter is one of the sources of nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen mineralization depends on application method, kind of organic matter, microbial activity, aeration and moisture. Soil samples were taken from Mathura tea garden and Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya cultivated field, West Bengal. Nitrogen mineralization was studied on tea soil and cultivated soil. Seven organic matters were collected for this study. Vermicompost (VC), farm yard manure (FYM), poultry manure (PM) were decomposed, whereas, raw cow dung (RCD), fish meal (FM), tannery waste (TW) and mustard cake (MC) were undecomposed. The mean maximum and minimum soil temperature for the entire in situ incubation period were respectively 26.33°C and 16.03°C. Net mineralization data (mg N/kg soil) showed that over the period of 84 days it varied from 26.43 to 62.19 for VC, 7.77 to 31.09 for FYM, 36.86 to 72.62 for PM, 32.65 to 76.19 for RCD, 59.08 to 106.51 for FM, 76.96 to 119.72 for TW and 29.54 to 108.06 for MC. The average of the weekly mineralized nitrogen from organic matter was in the decreasing order of TW >FM>MC >PM>RCD>VC>FYM.

Experimental Analysis of Solar Still using different Thermal Energy Storage Materials

Most of the human diseases are due to polluted water resources. So water purification is essential one. Among the various purification methods, the solar still contribution is highly appreciated. The different thermal energy storage materials are used in these still such as cow dung cakes, barks and charcoal. The energy storage materials induced the rate of evaporation and enhanced the distillation. The experimental results proved that the still using charcoal as energy storage material is proved with the highest production. From this experiment, the rate of discharge for charcoal, barks and cow dung cakes are 246%, 194% and 175% respectively than the conventional one.