Requirements Of Due Care Research Articles

And What About the Pharmacist?

In the Netherlands, euthanasia has been decriminalized. Termination of life on request and assisted suicide are criminal offences under Dutch law; but if physicians comply with the due care requirements of the Euthanasia Act and report their actions in the manner prescribed by law, they will not be prosecuted. One of the requirements relates to the act of euthanasia itself. If this is to be performed with due medical care, the physician relies on the services of a pharmacist. However, the responsibilities of the pharmacist with respect to euthanasia are not laid down in law. At present, Dutch pharmacists have to make do with professional rules that do not offer adequate solutions for the problems that may arise when euthanasia is performed.

Trends in Continuous Deep Sedation until Death between 2007 and 2013: A Repeated Nationwide Survey.

BackgroundContinuous deep sedation until death is a highly debated medical practice, particularly regarding its potential to hasten death and its proper use in end-of-life care. A thorough analysis of important trends in this practice is needed to identify potentially problematic developments. This study aims to examine trends in the prevalence and practice characteristics of continuous deep sedation until death in Flanders, Belgium between 2007 and 2013, and to study variation on physicians’ degree of palliative training.MethodsPopulation-based death certificate study in 2007 and 2013 in Flanders, Belgium. Reporting physicians received questionnaires about medical practices preceding the patient’s death. Patient characteristics, clinical characteristics (drugs used, duration, artificial nutrition/hydration, intention and consent), and palliative care training of attending physician were recorded. We posed the following question regarding continuous deep sedation: ‘Was the patient continuously and deeply sedated or kept in a coma until death by the use of one or more drugs’.ResultsAfter the initial rise of continuous deep sedation to 14.5% in 2007 (95%CI 13.1%-15.9%), its use decreased to 12.0% in 2013 (95%CI 10.9%-13.2%). Compared with 2007, in 2013 opioids were less often used as sole drug and the decision to use continuous deep sedation was more often preceded by patient request. Compared to non-experts, palliative care experts more often used benzodiazepines and less often opioids, withheld artificial nutrition/hydration more often and performed sedation more often after a request from or with the consent of the patient or family.ConclusionWorldwide, this study is the first to show a decrease in the prevalence of continuous deep sedation. Despite positive changes in performance and decision-making towards more compliance with due care requirements, there is still room for improvement in the use of recommended drugs and in the involvement of patients and relatives in the decision-making process.

Into the wild country: epistemic issues in professional guidelines for palliative sedation in end-of-life care

End-of-life care is an important object of governance. Using the linguistic notions of polysemy, metaphorical blending and counterfactual reasoning, this paper critically examines epistemic issues in professional guidelines for palliative sedation of the dying. As a last resort option, palliative sedation is described as the intentional, pharmacological reduction of the patient’s consciousness with the aim to reduce intolerable suffering from intractable physical symptoms that cannot be managed otherwise. Like a wilderness trail that simultaneously facilitates and constrains, the guidelines provide a set of ‘due care requirements’ that allows for the provision of end-of-life care in controversial territory.

Obligatory consultation of an independent physician on euthanasia requests in the Netherlands: What influences the SCEN physicians judgment of the legal requirements of due care?

BackgroundIn the Netherlands, euthanasia is allowed if physicians adhere to legal requirements. Consultation of an independent physician is one of the requirements. SCEN (Support and Consultation on Euthanasia in the Netherlands) physicians have been trained to provide such consultations. ObjectiveTo study why euthanasia requests are sometimes judged not to meet requirements of due care and to find out which characteristics are associated with the SCEN physicians’ judgments. MethodsDuring 5 years (2006, 2008–2011) standardized registration forms were used for data-collection. We used multilevel logistic regression analysis to assess the associations of characteristics and SCEN physicians’ judgments. ResultsWe analyzed 1631 euthanasia requests, involving 415 SCEN physicians. Patient characteristics that were associated with a lower likelihood to meet due care requirements were: being tired with life, depression and not wanting to be a burden. Physical suffering and higher patient age were related to greater chances of meeting the requirements. There was no clear association between SCEN physicians’ characteristics and their judgment. ConclusionPsychological suffering involves a greater chance that SCEN physicians judge that requirements of due care are not met. The association between SCEN physician characteristics and the judgment of euthanasia requests is limited, suggesting uniformity in their judgment.

Cultural differences affecting euthanasia practice in Belgium: One law but different attitudes and practices in Flanders and Wallonia

Since 2002, Belgium has had a national law legalising euthanasia. The law prescribes several substantive due care requirements and two procedural due care requirements, i.e. consultation with an independent physician and reporting of euthanasia to a Federal Control Committee. A large discrepancy in reporting rates between the Dutch-speaking (Flanders) and the French-speaking (Wallonia) parts of Belgium has led to speculation about cultural differences affecting the practice of euthanasia in both regions. Using Belgian data from the European Values Study conducted in 2008 among a representative sample of the general public and data from a large-scale mail questionnaire survey on euthanasia of 480 physicians from Flanders and 305 from Wallonia (conducted in 2009), this study presents empirical evidence of differences between both regions in attitudes towards and practice of euthanasia. Acceptance of euthanasia by the general population was found to be slightly higher in Flanders than in Wallonia. Compared with their Flemish counterparts, Walloon physicians held more negative attitudes towards performing euthanasia and towards the reporting obligation, less often labelled hypothetical cases correctly as euthanasia, and less often defined a case of euthanasia having to be reported. A higher proportion of Flemish physicians had received a euthanasia request since the introduction of the law. In cases of a euthanasia request, Walloon physicians consulted less often with an independent physician. Requests were more often granted in Flanders than in Wallonia (51% vs 38%), and performed euthanasia cases were more often reported (73% vs 58%). The study points out some significant differences between Flanders and Wallonia in practice, knowledge and attitudes regarding euthanasia and its legal requirements which are likely to explain the discrepancy between Wallonia and Flanders in the number of euthanasia cases reported. Cultural factors seem to play an important role in the practice of (legal) euthanasia and the extent to which legal safeguards are followed.

Unbearable suffering of patients with a request for euthanasia or physician‐assisted suicide: an integrative review

In the legal performance of the euthanasia procedure, unbearable suffering, one of the requirements of due care, is difficult to assess. Evaluation of the current knowledge of unbearable suffering is needed in the ongoing debate about the conditions on which EAS can be approved. Using an integrative literature review, we evaluated publications with definitions of suffering in general or in end-of-life situations and with descriptions of suffering in the context of a request for EAS. From the 1482 citations identified, we included 55 publications: 20 articles about definitions of suffering and 35 empirical studies on suffering. We found no definition of unbearable suffering in the context of a request for EAS. Qualitative patient-centered studies revealed the most motivations, and the most motivations named by only one of the three parties involved. The studies of relatives were limited, mainly quantitative and retrospective. We found no studies that brought together the views of the patients, relatives, and healthcare professionals. There is no generally accepted definition of 'unbearable suffering' in the context of a request for EAS. On the basis of the articles reviewed, we propose the following conceptual definition: 'Unbearable suffering in the context of a request for EAS is a profoundly personal experience of an actual or perceived impending threat to the integrity or life of the person, which has a significant duration and a central place in the person's mind'. Further patient-centered qualitative research into suffering is needed to clarify this definition.

The medical practice of euthanasia in Belgium and The Netherlands: Legal notification, control and evaluation procedures

To describe and compare current legal procedures for notifying, controlling and evaluating (NCE-procedures) euthanasia in Belgium and the Netherlands, and to discuss the implications for a safe and controllable euthanasia practice. We systematically studied and compared official documents relating to the Belgian and the Dutch NCE-procedures for euthanasia. In both countries, physicians are required to notify their cases to a review Committee, stimulating them to safeguard the quality of their euthanasia practice and to make societal control over the practice of euthanasia possible. However, the procedures in both countries differ. The main differences are that the Dutch notification and control procedures are more elaborate and transparent than the Belgian, and that the Belgian procedures are primarily anonymous, whereas the Dutch are not. Societal evaluation is made in both countries through the Committees' summary reports to Parliament. Transparent procedures like the Dutch may better facilitate societal control. Informing physicians about the law and the due care requirements for euthanasia, and systematic feedback about their medical actions are both pivotal to achieving efficient societal control and engendering the level of care needed when performing such far-reaching medical acts.

Euthanasia in intensive care: A 56-year-old man with a pontine hemorrhage resulting in a locked-in syndrome*

To describe a case of deliberate termination of life (euthanasia) in intensive care. Case report and review of the literature. A 56-yr-old man experienced a bilateral hemorrhage in the pontine structures and the medulla oblongata, resulting in a locked-in syndrome. The patient was taught to communicate by eye opening. On day 10 after the hemorrhage, he was informed about his diagnosis and prognosis. He was asked if he wished prolonged care, but this was refused. He was offered withdrawal of fluids and ventilation under sedation or deliberate termination of life (euthanasia). He chose euthanasia. The patient was admitted to the intensive care unit and was mechanically ventilated. The patient was euthanized 33 days after the diagnosis by the injection of 30 mg of midazolam, discontinuation of ventilation, and injection of 1.4 g of thiopentone. The tetraplegic aphonic patient was declared competent. His refusal of prolonged care was taken seriously. The requirements of due care according to the Dutch euthanasia act were met in this case. Euthanasia is an option in terminal illness in the Netherlands, but it is very rarely performed in intensive care. This case demonstrates that euthanasia is possible in a conscious patient who is unable to speak or write and who is mechanically ventilated.

When being ‘tired of living’ plays an important role in a request for euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide: patient characteristics and the physician's decision

Background: In the Netherlands physicians are allowed to grant requests for euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide (EAS) if they meet several requirements of due care. According to jurisprudence, a physician is not allowed to end the life of a patient whose request for EAS is based on being ‘tired of living’, because such a request falls outside the medical domain. Our previous studies have shown that in spite of this, such requests are made approximately 400 times a year. Objectives: To learn more about patients who request EAS because they are tired of living, and about factors that influence the decision of the physician. Design: Questionnaires ( n = 4842) completed by general practitioners ( n = 3994). Results: According to the physicians, 17% of patients who requested EAS were ‘tired of living’. Of 139 patients in whose request for EAS being tired of living played a major role, 47% suffered from cancer, 25% suffered from another severe disease and 28% had no severe disease. In all three groups the same three symptoms occurred most frequently, ‘feeling bad’, ‘tired’, and ‘not active’. Each of these symptoms occurred in more than half of the patients in each group. Most of the requests from patients with cancer were granted, but those from patients who had some other severe disease, or no severe disease at all, were refused. Factors that were related to granting a request were: the presence of unbearable and hopeless suffering, the absence of alternatives, and the absence of depressive symptoms. Conclusions: Being tired of living can play a major role in requests for EAS, both in the absence and the presence of a severe disease. The high occurrence of symptoms in the absence of a classifiable severe disease implies that physical symptoms are prevalent in this group of patients, leaving the legal requirement for EAS of ‘a medical cause’ open to interpretation in the more complex medical practice.

Il Rapporto 2001/2002 sulla prassi dell’eutanasia nei Paesi Bassi: considerazioni critiche

Nel mese di giugno di 2003 è stato pubblicato il terzo Rapporto sulla prassi di eutanasia nei Paesi Bassi. Lo scopo dell’indagine era, fra l’altro, di verificare se i medici rispettino la regolamentazione sull’eutanasia. Dal 1998 tutti i casi di eutanasia e suicidio medicalmente assistito devono essere denunciati dal medico alle Commissioni Regionali di Controllo sull’Eutanasia. Questa procedura è stata poi mantenuta nella Legge sul “Controllo della Cessazione della Vita a Richiesta e dell’Assistenza al Suicidio” (2001) secondo cui l’eutanasia e il suicidio medicalmente assistito sono legali a condizione che il medico abbia rispettato una serie di adempimenti. Uno di essi richiede che il medico denunci casi di eutanasia e suicidio medicalmente assistito.
 Dal Rapporto, invece, risulta che - sebbene la percentuale di casi di eutanasia e suicidio medicalmente assistito denunciati sia aumentata dal 41% nel 1995 fino al 54% nel 2001, il numero totale tende a calare dal 2000. Il numero dei casi di cessazione intenzionale della vita senza richiesta del malato è rimasto praticamente invariato nel 2001/2002. Siccome i medici denunciano appena questi casi, il controllo sociale su essi è praticamente escluso. Molti casi di cessazione intenzionale della vita sono velati come casi di sedazione terminale.
 Rimane inoltre la domanda se il 13% di tutti i decessi (circa 18.200 in totale) in cui una terapia non è stata iniziata o continuata allo scopo esplicito di accelerare la morte, non sia equivalente alla cessazione intenzionale della vita dal punto di vista etico. La prassi dell’eutanasia nei Paesi Bassi non risulta quindi essere controllata, contrariamente a quanto voluto dal legislatore.
 Un dato significativo è che l’introduzione delle cure palliative (CP) in Olanda ha avuto luogo abbastanza tardi (nella seconda meta degli anni Novanta del XX secolo), l’introduzione dell’eutanasia invece presto (cioè negli anni Settanta). Medici che svolgono il ruolo di consultatori in casi di eutanasia nei Paesi Bassi, hanno costatato che la frequenza di richieste di eutanasia è diminuita considerevolmente dopo l’introduzione delle CP. La conclusione è che l’applicazione delle CP costituisca la garanzia migliore per un trattamento adeguato della condizione di fine vita e un efficace antidoto contro la richiesta eutanasica.

The New Regulation of Voluntary Euthanasia and Medically Assisted Suicide in the Netherlands

On 1 April 2002 the Dutch Bill 'Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide (Review Procedures) Act' (Wet toetsing levensbeeindiging op verzoek en hulp bij zelfdoding) came into force. This article starts with an outline of the former legal position in The Netherlands regarding euthanasia and medically assisted suicide, followed by an explanation of the new Act. The main focus of this contribution lays on the requirements of due care, the obligation to notify euthanasia to the coroner and the revised legal position of the so-called Regional Review Commissions. Furthermore, the article considers the termination of life in the case of minors and the function and requirements of written statements of euthanasia by patients no longer capable of communication. Finally, the article gives an overview of the problems [that] may come in the future concerning the approach to euthanasia in The Netherlands.

»Sterbehilfe« in den Niederlanden und Belgien

Abstract Recently, both in the Netherlands and in Belgium, legislation has been approved to depenalize »euthanasia «. From the background of a theological perspective and in the light of a justified aspiration for >death with dignity<, this article discusses the critical contributions of the Christian churches to the public and political debate that accompanied these legislative changes. Special attention is devoted to the so-called >requirements of due care<. Finally, some observations are offered for the future, including comments on the frequently invoked notion of >the gift of life<.