Dual Immersion Programs Research Articles

Dimensionality of Writing Skills in English and Spanish, and the Relations of Language and Cognitive Skills to Written Composition for English‐Spanish Emergent Bilingual Children in Grade 1

AbstractWe examined the relations of language skills (vocabulary, listening comprehension, and oral retell), transcription skills (spelling and handwriting fluency), and domain‐general cognitions/executive functions (working memory and attentional control) to writing quality for English‐Spanish emergent bilingual children in Grade 1. Data were from a convenience sample of 211 children (57% girls; 82% Hispanic, 9.5% White, 4% Asian American children) who were assessed on written composition, vocabulary, listening comprehension, oral retell, and spelling in English and Spanish; handwriting fluency and working memory in English; and attentional control rated by their teachers. Confirmatory factor analysis results showed that writing quality in English and Spanish in narrative and opinion genres was best described as a unidimensional skill. Structural equation model results showed that English oral language, English spelling, and Spanish spelling skills, but not Spanish oral language skill, were independently related to writing quality, after controlling for gender, English learner status, Hispanic status, and enrollment in dual immersion program. The relations of working memory and attentional control to writing quality were indirect, mediated by oral language and transcription skills. These results are discussed in light of theory and in the context of emergent bilingual children in primary grades.

Crosslinguistic influence on spelling in written compositions: Evidence from English-Spanish dual language learners in primary grades

We investigated spelling errors in English and Spanish essays by Spanish-English dual language learners in Grades 1, 2, and 3 (N = 278; 51% female) enrolled in either English immersion or English-Spanish dual immersion programs. We examined what types of spelling errors students made, whether they made spelling errors that could be due to crosslinguistic influence, and whether errors were associated with instructional program, English learner status, and grade level. Compositions were transcribed and coded using the Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT) software. Spelling errors were suggestive of crosslinguistic influence that was mostly unidirectional from one language to the other rather than bidirectional. Spelling errors were related to instructional program such that students in Spanish-English dual immersion made more English spelling errors in English compositions due to Spanish influence, and students in English immersion made more spelling errors in Spanish compositions due to English influence. Students in higher grades also made less English spelling errors in English compositions due to Spanish influence than students in lower grades. These findings suggest that dual language learners acquire spelling patterns in one language influenced by instruction and home language, which transfers to spelling in the other language.

Crosslinguistic Transfer of Higher Order Cognitive Skills and Their Roles in Writing for English-Spanish Dual Language Learners.

We investigated the dimensionality and relations between L1 and L2 writing skills in narrative and informational genres, and higher order cognitive skills-inference, perspective taking, and comprehension monitoring-for Spanish-English dual language learners in primary grades. Dimensions of written composition and higher order cognitive skills were examined, comparing nine alternative models. Data from 317 dual language learners in Grades 1 and 2 were used in confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. For the dimensionality of written composition, a unidimensional model, where writing was characterized as a single underlying construct across languages (Spanish and English) and genres (narrative & opinion), fit the data best. With regard to the dimensionality of higher order cognitive skills, data supported a bifactor model with (a) a general factor that captures common variance across languages and across inference, perspective taking, and comprehension monitoring skills and (b) specific factors by language (Spanish and English). The higher order cognition general factor was fairly strongly related to writing quality (.59), and the relation remained even after accounting for sex, poverty status, grade level, English learner status, school, and biliterate status. These relations were similar for students in English immersion program and Spanish-English dual immersion programs. These results indicate potential cross-language transfer of higher order cognitive skills, and the roles of higher order cognitions in written composition for Spanish-English dual language learners.

Dual Immersion Digital Instruction: A Theoretical Model for Equitable and Inclusive Classrooms

Dual immersion programs have proven effective in achieving biliteracy for all students. However, maintaining equitable practices at the core of such programs has become more challenging in remote learning due to the pandemic. It is necessary, therefore, to revise some of the benefits and challenges of digital instruction mediated by technology in these settings. Using a middle school Dual Immersion (di) program in Southern California as a background, and from the perspective of bilingual education teachers and professors, this article presents a theoretical model called Dual Immersion Digital Instruction (di2) that could serve that purpose. The model includes the five dimensions involved in just, equitable, and inclusive education: Technological, content, social, linguistic, and pedagogical. The article also analyzes the pedagogical opportunities and challenges that teachers in di programs face in regards to each of these dimensions when all instruction becomes fully online. Finally, the article discusses how the shift to online teaching in di classrooms could impact bilingual teacher education programs.

Dual Immersion Digital Instruction: A Theoretical Model for Equitable and Inclusive Classrooms

Dual immersion programs have proven effective in achieving biliteracy for all students. However, maintaining equitable practices at the core of such programs has become more challenging in remote learning due to the pandemic. It is necessary, therefore, to revise some of the benefits and challenges of digital instruction mediated by technology in these settings. Using a middle school Dual Immersion (di) program in Southern California as a background, and from the perspective of bilingual education teachers and professors, this article presents a theoretical model called Dual Immersion Digital Instruction (di2) that could serve that purpose. The model includes the five dimensions involved in just, equitable, and inclusive education: Technological, content, social, linguistic, and pedagogical. The article also analyzes the pedagogical opportunities and challenges that teachers in di programs face in regards to each of these dimensions when all instruction becomes fully online. Finally, the article discusses how the shift to online teaching in di classrooms could impact bilingual teacher education programs.

Inclusion of Students with Autism in a Dual Immersion Program: A Case Study

ABSTRACT This single instrumental case study examines the Pathways Program, a dual immersion (DI) strand for students with autism and related disabilities. Pathways is housed at Crossroads Elementary School, a school-wide DI program in the Southern United States. Data include interviews with educators and mothers of students with autism, along with school-based observations and a review of educational documents. Findings suggest that the benefits of DI programs for students with disabilities include enhanced parent/educator collaboration and positive student identity development. However, logistical challenges (e.g., lack of qualified bilingual special educators and curricula) and structural barriers (e.g., negative attitudes toward bilingualism, English-only high stakes assessments) thwart implementation. Indeed, Pathways only existed as a DI special education program for a single year. And the results of this study provide insights about persistent obstacles at the intersection of language and disability. Implications for practice are discussed.

The time is now! Preparing middle and high school teachers for Dual Immersion Programs (Spanish-English) in California: a readying examination of current practices, needs, and potentialities

ABSTRACT Teachers working in middle and high school Dual Immersion (DI) programs (Spanish-English) face unique sets of challenges: linguistic equity between the two languages of instruction, attrition due to high linguistic and academic expectations, and preparing DI students for standardized tests in English. In this article, we reflect on our current experiences both from the teacher preparation perspective and from daily teaching and learning in DI classrooms. From the intersection of our positionalities and lived experiences, we conceptualize the next steps in the preparation of future Dual Immersion (Spanish-English) secondary teachers. In doing so, we outline the specific skills middle and high school DI teachers must have in order to build effective practices around three key areas for Dual Immersion instruction: Bilingualism and Biliteracy, Student Achievement, and Socio-Cultural Competence. We argue that in order to guarantee the success and high quality of DI programs in middle and high school, Teacher Preparation Programs and School Districts should work together now developing a comprehensive and intentional preparation and support for middle and high school DI teachers and administrators working in these school sites.

Parent satisfaction and one-way Mandarin Chinese dual-language programs in Utah

ABSTRACT This study invited parents in 21 one-way Mandarin Chinese dual immersion programs in Utah to respond to a survey on-line. Five hundred and eighty parents participated in this study. The objectives of the survey study were to learn the parents’ reasons for enrollment, their program satisfaction, and whether there was a group difference based on the following parental demographic factors: ethnicity, income, and education. In general, the majority of the parents were satisfied with the program; however, the results of the chi-square test illustrated that more Asian parents chose the program for their child so that they could better relate to their heritage. Moreover, the results of the MANOVA test revealed that there was an interaction effect between education level and ethnicity on program satisfaction. Based on the mean scores of the survey items, this study observed the tendencies that Asian parents without a higher education degree were more satisfied with the language learning environment in the program and the native and academic language of teachers while parents of other ethnicities (not white or Asian) with graduate degree(s) were least satisfied. Ko-Yin Sung received her Ph.D. from The University of Texas at San Antonio in 2009 and is currently the coordinator of the Chinese language program and an Associate Professor of Chinese at Utah State University. Her research interests include bilingual education, Chinese-character acquisition, language learning strategies, and technology-assisted language learning.

Predictors of Theory of Mind performance in bilingual and monolingual children

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: The goal of the current study was to examine whether language and Executive Function (EF) skills predict Theory of Mind (ToM) performance in bilingual and monolingual children. Design/methodology/approach: Participants included 44 monolingual English-speaking children ( MAge = 7.03, SD = 1.23), 44 simultaneous English-Spanish bilingual children ( MAge = 7.36, SD = 1.18), and 27 English first language (L1) bilinguals (native English speakers learning Spanish through dual immersion programs; MAge = 7.58, SD = 1.24). In the second-order false belief task, children were asked to reason about one character’s thoughts about another character’s thoughts. Three components of EF were measured: inhibition (via a flanker task); updating of working memory (via a Corsi blocks task); and shifting (via a card sort task). The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals 4th Edition indexed omnibus English language skills. Data and analysis: Separate logistic regression models were constructed to analyze the predictors of ToM performance for each group controlling for age, socioeconomic status, and non-verbal IQ. Findings/conclusions: Language ability, but not EF skills, predicted ToM performance in simultaneous bilinguals. In contrast, EF skills but not language predicted ToM performance in monolinguals and in English L1 bilinguals. Originality: This is the first study to show that children with distinct language acquisition histories approach verbal ToM problems differently. Significance/implications: It appears that the linguistic demands of the ToM task take priority for children with lower levels of target-language ability, while the cognitive demands of the task take priority for children with higher levels of target-language ability.

Autism and dual immersion: sorting through the questions

PurposeThe dual immersion (DI) model of bilingual education, which focuses on educating language-minority and majority students side by side using the two languages in roughly equal proportions, is gaining popularity. And yet, students with disabilities – even those who are already multilingual – are routinely steered away from such programs in favor of English-only special education options. The paper aims to discuss these issues.Design/methodology/approachThis paper explores the potential benefits and challenges associated with including multilingual students with autism in DI classrooms, beginning with an exploration of literature related to students with autism who are also multilingual learners (MLLs) (irrespective of educational placement), followed by a small body of literature on the inclusion of students with disabilities in general in DI programs, and finally an analysis of the characteristics of DI classrooms to extrapolate about the ways in which this environment might be both supportive of and challenging for students with autism.FindingsThe analysis reveals that DI programs are simultaneously well positioned (theoretically) and ill equipped (practically) to effectively support MLLs who are also on the autism spectrum.Originality/valueIn spite of mounting evidence that being multilingual may advantage children with autism, very little scholarship has even raised the question of whether students with autism might benefit from participation in bilingual programs where academic instruction is delivered in two languages (Beauchamp and MacLeod, 2017; Durán et al., 2016; Marinova-Todd et al., 2016; Seung et al., 2006). This paper identifies practical implications related to including students with autism in DI programs and suggests directions for future research.

Student attitudes and Cantonese proficiency in a Cantonese dual immersion school.

Previous research reports the positive impact of dual immersion programs on students' language proficiency, yet fewer studies have examined students' attitudes in such programs. The current study examined student attitudes and language proficiency in a Cantonese dual immersion school and explored relationships between students' attitudes and language proficiency in Cantonese. Language proficiency results showed that, on average, Cantonese immersion student performances indicated attainment of Intermediate High level in listening, Novice Mid level in reading, and Novice High level in writing. In addition, heritage learners outperformed non-heritage learners in reading and listening skills. Survey data revealed that heritage learners held more positive attitudes toward learning Cantonese compared to non-heritage learners but that there were no differences in attitudes toward the focal school between the two student groups. Regression analysis revealed that students' attitudes towards the dual immersion school explained significant variance in their Cantonese reading, listening and speaking skills. Qualitative data also revealed that students' positive attitudes toward their school were shaped by their experiences with their principal, teachers, and school activities. These findings shed light on the role that positive school and learning environments play in helping dual language immersion school students acquire proficiency in the partner language.

Discovering Pride and Enthusiasm at a Dual Immersion School

In California, dual immersion programs are increasing. Knowing more than one language is a valuable skill for all students. In order for educators to support students in developing their multilingual abilities it is important that we have constant reflection about our teaching pedagogy and try multiple strategies to engage students. Through this inquiry, my hope was to inspire enthusiasm and pride among students in a dual language immersion program who demonstrated a resistance to learning Spanish. To address the issue of resistance, I created a unit of study around the value of bilingualism. The unit focused on valuing knowing more than one language, the history of Spanish in California, higher education, the cognitive benefits of being multilingual, and how multilingual individuals can help their community. The theories that informed my study were sociocultural theory, culturally relevant pedagogy, and community cultural wealth. My main data collection strategies included semi-structured interviews, participant observation, collection of student work, and survey collection of six parents and eighteen students. Findings from this study suggest that personal narratives can be a powerful medium for inspiring pride and enthusiasm in the process of becoming bilingual.

PreK–5 Foreign Language Programs: No Longer an Endangered Species?

PreK–5 Foreign Language Programs:No Longer an Endangered Species? Mary Jo Adams Keywords early language learning/aprendizaje de idiomas en escuela primaria, FLES, FLEX, immersion/imersión, teaching and learning/enseñaza y aprendizaje Challenges facing foreign language instruction in the United States are particularly acute in preK–5 programs. However, the rise of dual language immersion programs in this country represents a bright light in regard to elementary foreign language instruction. Dual language programs are being added and expanded across the country at a quick pace. Two years ago, the New York Times reported, "40 dual-language programs for elementary, middle, and high school levels would be created or expanded for the 2015–16 school year" (Harris 2015). In North Carolina, over the past ten years the number of dual-language and immersion programs has grown from programs at seven schools to over 100 programs, many of which start in Kindergarten (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction). Maryland's Howard County Public School System is leading the way in their state by significantly increasing their K–12 language offerings. The state of Utah boasts 138 schools offering dual language immersion programs, 106 of which are in elementary schools (Utah State Board of Education). Despite the growth of these programs, there are very few teacher-training programs that exist to prepare such teachers. With the rapid expansion of dual immersion programs, our profession may be faced with a teacher shortage. Dual immersion and elementary foreign language education require unique skills. Teacher training programs are critical to ensure sound, developmentally appropriate pedagogy. According to the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) report from 2009, "More than one quarter of all elementary school foreign language teachers are not certified at all. The percentage of elementary schools that reported having uncertified language teachers increased from 17% in 1997 to 31% in 2008" (Rhodes and Pufahl 2009: 4). More than ever, teacher training and certification programs will need to be accessible and affordable for new teachers entering the profession and for those that need additional training in order to be qualified to teach in dual immersion programs. A 2011 report on the effect of quality teachers on student achievement concluded, "The year-long and cumulative effects on student achievement of having a qualified teacher can be measured and have been found to be substantial" (Hightower et al. 2011). A Call for Research The need for strong elementary school foreign language programs must be made evident. However, these programs are expensive. To convince parents, school districts, and taxpayers of their value, strong evidence must be provided of their value. In a recent article by Kissau, Adams, and Algozzine (2015), [End Page 163] the researchers call for further research to support early language programs. Research on the motivational and proficiency related benefits of beginning language at an early age must be a priority. There is very little research conducted in the United States on the benefits of learning a language starting at a young age, yet there are plenty of excellent FLEX, FLES, and immersion programs that could offer valuable data and insight to proficiency outcomes in relation to early start programs. A Call for Excellence Public and private schools that offer early language programs (e.g., FLEX, FLES, immersion) need to be models and advocates for early language education. Many elementary school language teachers are responsible for developing curriculum and may not have the resources, training, or funding to guide their efforts in order to ensure program excellence. Therefore, teachers in early language programs must become professionally active in national and state foreign language associations such as the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), the National Network for Early Language Learning (NNELL), their respective language association, such as the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese (AATSP), and state organizations such as the Foreign Language Association of North Carolina (FLANC). If we desire a globally competent United States population, we must raise our students starting at a very young age to be so. We know that advocacy efforts have been in full force for decades, and are shown to be effective and therefore, must continue. Important advocacy events, such as Language...

Paving the Way for Quality PreK–5 Language Programs

Paving the Way for Quality PreK–5 Language Programs Nadine Jacobsen-McLean Keywords bilingual education/educación bilingüe, dual language/dos lenguas, early language learning/aprendizaje de idiomas en escuela primaria, immersion/imersión, teaching and learning/enseñanza y aprendizaje, Seal of Biliteracy Response 2 to "Realizing the Vision of Quality PreK–5 Spanish Language Programs: A Longitudinal Perspective" The intention of Audrey L. Heining-Boynton's essay is to take a look back at the early beginnings of language programs and provide a vision for high-quality programs for the future. Building upon the themes in Heining-Boynton's essay, a comprehensive review of the advances in the field of early language learning continues to invite further research and inquiry. According to Abbott et al. (2014), the United States can provide "100% of learners in the US education system with exposure to international perspectives, culture, and/or language, in order to inform lifelong decisions about work and learning, and to support language and international efforts broadly in society" (256). In attempts to make this vision a reality, Abbott et al. envision a collaborative effort by which nonprofits collectively act, "in a grassroots effort in collaboration with the national security entities in the federal government and the economic interest in state governments" (259). Grassroots initiatives like the Seal of Biliteracy address concerns such as appropriate learner objectives, desired proficiency outcomes, and developing and maintaining support among stakeholders. This initiative began as an award for high school students who have attained proficiency in two or more languages; however, the Seal of Biliteracy has now expanded to dual language immersion programs at the elementary and middle school levels (see sealofbiliteracy.org). The Seal of Biliteracy is open to both native English speakers who have attained a predetermined level of proficiency in an additional language and to English language learners who have retained their native language or developed their heritage language. As acknowledged in a joint policy statement between the US Department of Health and Human Services and the Department of Education, the majority school age, dual language learners come from homes where Spanish is the primary spoken language ("Fact Sheet" 2016). This policy statement also suggests that not recognizing a child's culture and language as an asset may contribute to the achievement gap. In 2014, nine states had adopted the Seal of Biliteracy. At the time of this submission, at least 27 states have adopted the the Seal of Biliteracy which is often awarded at special ceremonies. This emphasizes the value of proficiency in another language. The Seal of Biliteracy raises the bar from just something to be completed to one that recognizes language acquisition as a skill. In order to meet the demand of qualified language teachers, candidates must demonstrate advanced proficiency in the language that can be only achieved by a native speaker or by immersion learners. The number of immersion schools is rising in states like New York, Utah, Delaware, and North Carolina. In 2015, the National Network for Early Language Learning (NNELL) presented New York City Schools Chancellor Carmen Fariña with the NNELL Award [End Page 165] for Outstanding Support of Early Second Language Learning ("Awards" 2015). Fariña created 40 dual language programs in 2015, with more programs planned; she claims parents are driving the push for the programs ("Chancellor Fariña Announces Programs" 2016). According to Gregg Roberts, the World Language Specialist for the Utah Office of Education, Utah plans to add 20 to 25 more dual language schools per school year as dual immersion programs have increased from 1,400 students in 25 schools in 2009 to 29,000 students in 138 schools in 2016 (qtd. in Wood 2016). As part of Governor Jack Markell's World Language Expansion Initiative, Delaware hopes to reach nearly 10,000 students in K–8 immersion programs by 2022 ("World Language Immersion Expands" 2015). Thomas and Collier (2012) claim dual language schools in North Carolina are so popular with English-speaking parents that there is a waiting list at each school for admission (69). As North Carolina implements and expands bilingual immersion programs, Thomas and Collier outlined the implementation process as well as research and...

Language Transfer in a Dual Immersion Program: Cognates, Morphology and Language Contrasts

This comparative case study explored language transfer patterns implemented in two elementary dual immersion classrooms. Following Dual Immersion norms, a strict separation of languages was maintained, which inhibited, but did not eliminate, the teachers’ use of transfer practices. Research data included three months of classroom observations and monthly interviews with teachers. Findings showed that teachers used cognates and morphology to demonstrate similarities between Spanish and English, and they contrasted languages to help students notice and understand differences between the languages. Students evidenced independent use of these strategies (cognates, morphology and language contrasts), and transfer was observed both from L1 to L2 and from L2 to L1. Teachers’ beliefs about transfer influenced whether and how they taught it. Instructional implications include an expanded focus on theory and instructional practices that support transfer, and meaning-based vocabulary and comprehension instruction. Programmatic implications include reconsidering the strict language separation rule in Dual Immersion programs.

The Unique Skills and Traits of Principals in One‐Way and Two‐Way Dual Immersion Schools

AbstractThis study considers the opinions of dual immersion elementary school principals in investigating the following research questions: (1) What do dual immersion principals identify as the skills and traits for the school leader that lead to the principal's success in a dual immersion context? and (2) What were the differences of opinion, if any, between principals of one‐way and two‐way dual immersion programs about the traits and skills required for the school leader? Data was collected from 12 interviews and an online survey of 29 principals of dual immersion schools in Utah. Dual immersion is a model for teaching foreign language in the elementary schools where two languages are studied simultaneously, thus differing from total immersion models, where the foreign language is the only language used at school (Roberts, 2015). Understanding the role of the principal at these schools was the central focus of this research. The themes and patterns that emerged from the data analysis point to five key roles for dual immersion principals. Findings also indicate that these needed skills and traits for school leaders vary between one‐way and two‐way dual immersion programs.

Diary of a Bilingual School by Sharon Adelman Reyes, James Crawford (review)

Reviewed by: Diary of a Bilingual School by Sharon Adelman Reyes, James Crawford Jennifer Austin Adelman Reyes, Sharon, and Crawford, James. Diary of a Bilingual School. Portland, OR: Diversity Learning K12, 2012. Pp. 120. ISBN: 978-0-9847317-0-1. Diary of a Bilingual School is an ethnographic account of a year spent observing a second-grade classroom at the Inter-American Magnet School, a dual immersion program in Chicago where students from diverse language backgrounds learn academic content in Spanish and English. The book would be particularly useful for parents or educators who are unfamiliar with dual immersion education and would like some insight into the dynamics of one such classroom, as well as for reinforcing effective pedagogical practices for immersion teachers. In addition, it would be useful as a supplementary text for an undergraduate course on bilingual education. Clearly written and accessible for non-specialists, Diary of a Bilingual School’s first two chapters (“Fundamentals”) provide a brief introduction to the history of dual language instruction and the founding of the Inter-American Magnet School. They also introduce the reader to terminology and theories relevant to bilingual educational models and language acquisition as well as contrasting constructivist with traditional approaches to instruction. The introduction is followed by four chapters (“Narratives”) containing detailed, vivid descriptions of day-to-day classroom interactions interspersed with commentary by the authors. The narratives are structured around curricular units, such as “Nincas and ninfas,” which bring [End Page 799] to life the interactions between the children and the teacher in the classroom, as well occasional exchanges between the children and their parents at home. The book’s epilogue “Outcomes: Schooling for Life” tells what became of the children fifteen years later and draws conclusions about the impact that dual immersion education made on their future lives. The greatest strength of the book is that it contains a wealth of lively anecdotes that recount dialogues between the children and their teacher, illustrating and contextualizing the children’s linguistic and academic growth. The authors skillfully interpret these anecdotes for the reader in order to outline general principles of bilingual development in children as well as successful strategies for teaching in an immersion classroom. For example, the authors provide a wonderful illustration of early metalinguistic awareness in a child who, speaking through an imaginary English-speaking character that is acquiring Spanish, slowly alters a Spanish nursery rhyme, first through an Anglicized accent and later through lexical choices, so that the verses become bilingual. In the section “Counteracting the Prevalence of English,” the authors convey the challenges of imparting academic content exclusively through Spanish in a linguistically diverse classroom in which most of the children are English-dominant bilinguals. The teacher’s tactics for enforcing the use of Spanish in the classroom, including recasting children’s English utterances in Spanish and using visual aids and gestures to promote comprehension, would be useful for both teachers and parents in a dual language environment. The authors’ analysis of the instructional approach used in the school, which they describe as progressive or constructivist, is more speculative and less research-based than their discussion of the impact of dual immersion. For example, they argue that “dual immersion tends to incorporate constructivist strategies. The fact that it does so may help to account for its academic successes, especially for English language learners (a hypothesis that admittedly remains untested by researchers)” (17). While it is possible that the use of a constructivist approach to teaching played a role in the academic accomplishments of the children at the Inter-American Magnet School, another possibility left unexplored by the authors is that dual language instruction promotes achievement through the very act of becoming bilingual. Research suggests that becoming bilingual in childhood through immersion education enhances executive function, a cognitive ability highly correlated with academic success, so it is also possible that bilingualism itself plays a more important role in boosting academic outcomes than any particular pedagogical method (see Hermanto, Moreno, and Bialystok, 2012). The widely touted cognitive benefits of bilingualism receive scant mention in the book; however, Diary of a Bilingual School does base its discussion of dual immersion strategies and second language acquisition throughout the...

Perceived impact of two-way dual immersion programs on Latino students' relationships in their families and communities

This study examined how participation of Latino students in two-way dual immersion versus mainstream programs might have impacted students' relationships with Spanish-speaking adults, thus affecting contexts for students to develop resiliency. Participants were parents of 90 fifth- and sixth-grade students (initially English proficient [EP] as well as initially English language learners) in dual immersion, and parents of 103 students of similar language backgrounds in mainstream programs, located in three schools. Also, the students themselves completed questionnaires. Findings showed that a greater number of parents in dual immersion programs perceived that their children grew closer to Spanish-speaking family and communicated more with Spanish-speaking community members, with marked enthusiasm noted especially in open-ended responses by parents of EP students. Statistical analysis showed significantly higher means of responses for dual immersion parents compared with parents of mainstream students on questions related to these issues, which was the case for students' responses as well.

Examining the Effects of Language Brokering on Student Identities and Learning Opportunities in Dual Immersion Classrooms

In settings where speakers of two or more different languages coexist, language brokering, the act of interpreting and translating between culturally and linguistically different speakers, is commonly practiced. Yet the examination of language brokering and its implications in classroom settings have not received much attention in the literature. The purpose of this study is to better understand how language brokering functions as an organizational tool in dual immersion classroom interactions to position second language (L2) students in ways that support or constrain learning opportunities. Our data suggest that although language-brokering events enable L2 learners to gain access to critical information in learning contexts, they also work to position the language broker as being more “able” in relation to the student receiving the brokering services, whose opportunities to publicly construct an “able” student identity are restricted. However, in dual immersion programs, the continual shifting of linguistic contexts across subject matter provide opportunities for all students, regardless of linguistic background, to take on the role of the broker, thereby, enabling students to renegotiate and reposition their public student identities. The analysis makes possible an understanding of the intended and unintended consequences of language-brokering processes that may provide insights into how to promote more equitable learning opportunities and positive student identities.

The Impact of Two-Way Dual-Immersion Programs on Initially English-Dominant Latino Students' Attitudes

Forty initially English-dominant Latino students in four 90:10 Spanish two-way dual-immersion programs and 62 of their peers in mainstream English programs were studied to find out if their attitudes toward Spanish and Spanish-dominant individuals differ. Significant differences were found on many variables, with two-way dual-immersion students presenting higher means in each case of statistical significance, especially on variables measuring pleasure with Spanish reading and comfort speaking Spanish in public. Differences, again with higher means for dual-immersion students, were also noted for variables measuring general biculturalism. Attitudinal change is considered in light of relations between Latino generational subgroups.