Drying Kinetics Research Articles

Mathematical Modelling of the Drying Kinetics and Optimization of Process Conditions for Tilapia zillii Fillets Dried in a Convection Oven

Mathematical Modelling of the Drying Kinetics and Optimization of Process Conditions for Tilapia zillii Fillets Dried in a Convection Oven

From Fresh to Dried: Evaluating Drying Kinetics of Sultana and Besni Grapes

This research investigates the thin-layer drying kinetics of Sultana and Besni grapes using the forced-air drying method. The study evaluates the applicability of three drying models (Lewis, Page, and Henderson & Pabis) to the experimental data and concurrently determines the effective moisture diffusivity and activation energy of dried grapes at varying temperatures. The grapes were dried at different temperatures (55, 65, and 75 °C) in an air-forced drying oven until a moisture ratio of 0.14 ± 0.01 kg water/kg dry matter was achieved. When evaluating the coefficient of determination (R2), chi-square (χ2), and root-meansquare error (RMSE) values for the dehydrated grapes, the results reveal that all three models provided a reasonable fit for the experimental data, with the Page model proving to be the best fit. Effective moisture diffusivity values increased significantly with rising temperatures, and higher temperatures accelerate the drying process. The conclusions drawn from the study underscore the importance of understanding grape-specific drying kinetics for improving energy efficiency and optimizing drying procedures. The Page model has been highlighted as particularly useful for future studies and industrial applications. This study provides valuable insights into both the academic community and the food industry, suggesting potential pathways for energy conservation and enhanced drying processes in dehydrated foods.

Effect of Biopolymer Dip-Coating Pretreatments as a Non-Thermal Green Technology on Physicochemical Characteristics, Drying, and Rehydration Kinetics of Santa Maria Pears

This research was conducted to determine the influences of biopolymer dip-coating pretreatments as a non-thermal green technology on the drying behavior, retention of bioactive compounds, and quality properties of pears. The fresh pears were washed, peeled, and diced into cubes of 5 × 5 mm with a 2 mm thickness and were dipped into 0.3% (w/v) solutions of sodium alginate (SA), pectin (PC), xanthan gum (XG), Arabic gum (AG), and gelatin (GE) before hot air drying (70 °C, 2.0 m/s). The weight loss of samples during drying was recorded online, and the moisture ratio (MR) and drying rate were plotted against drying time. Biopolymers significantly decreased the drying time (maximum 33.33% by SA) compared with uncoated samples except for XG. Moisture diffusion coefficients were determined according to Fick’s second law of diffusion by plotting LnMR against drying time, and a linear regression analysis was applied to the data for the determination of moisture diffusion coefficients which ranged from 2.332 to 3.256 × 10−9 m2/s. The molecular transport of momentum, heat, and mass were determined from Newton’s law of viscosity, Fourier’s law, and Fick’s law, respectively. The results indicated that the friction drag force, convective heat, and mass transfer coefficients were 6.104 × 10−6 N, 76.55 W/m2·K, and 0.0636 m/s, respectively. Mathematical modeling showed the suitability of the Midilli and Kucuk and the Peleg models for the prediction of drying and rehydration processes, respectively. Thermal conductivity, specific heat, and density of coated samples ranged from 0.559–0.579 (W/m·K), 3735–3859 (J/kg·K), and 850.90–883.26 (Kg/m3), respectively. The porosity was reduced due to the penetration of biopolymers into the cellular matrix of samples. The highest total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity belonged to the AG samples. The biopolymers covering the surface of samples produced a protection layer against the loss of bioactive compounds. Biopolymers can be successfully used as a non-thermal green process for improving the drying and quality characteristics of pears at the industrial level.

Moisture Sorption Behavior and Effects of Temperature, Slice Thickness, and Loading Density on Drying Kinetics of a Local Sweet Potato Cultivar Grown in Bangladesh

This study is aimed at investigating the moisture sorption behavior and thin-layer drying kinetics of local sweet potato sada (LSPS) variety slices. The sweet potato tubers were sliced at 3, 5, and 7 mm and dried at temperatures of 45, 55, and 62°C at a constant air velocity of 0.6 m/sec in a laboratory-scale cabinet dryer. The BET (Brunauer, Emmet, and Teller) and GAB (Guggenheim-Anderson-De Bore) models were applied to fit the sorption data. Fick’s diffusion equation was used to calculate the drying rate constant and effective moisture diffusivity. Our current result reveals that LSPS exhibited an isotherm with a sigmoid (type II) shape, and the GAB model was more goodness of fit than the BET model to clarify the adsorption isotherm of LSPS. The drying time increased with increasing slice thickness but reduced with increasing drying temperature. The drying rate constant for thin-layer drying decreased with an increase in slice thickness but increased with increasing drying temperature. The loading density with two different shapes (French cut and cube cut) also affected the drying rate constant, which decreased with the increase in loading density. Using statistical parameters, five thin-layer drying models were applied to fit the drying data. The findings indicated that the logarithmic model for 45-55°C and the Page model for 62°C were the most suitable models for explaining the drying behavior of LSPS slices. The effective moisture diffusivity increased with increasing slice thickness and drying temperature, ranging from 7.10 × 10 − 11 to 1.55 × 10 − 10 m2/s over the temperature range studied. The activation energy also increased with increasing slice thickness, and the values were 5.55 and 7.39 kJ/mol for 3 and 5 mm slices, respectively. The findings suggested that slice thickness, drying temperature, and sample loading density on cabinet dryer trays affect the drying kinetics of sweet potato slices.

Combined Effect of Airborne Ultrasound and Temperature On the Drying Kinetics and Quality Properties of Kiwifruit (Actinidia Deliciosa)

Drying is one of the most used options for the stabilization of the surpluses resulting from kiwifruit industrialization for their upcycling. However, drying conditions, such as drying temperature or ultrasound application during drying to intensify the process, can highly affect its final quality. Thus, with the aim to assess the combined influence of temperature and ultrasound application in the drying process of kiwifruit, ultrasonically assisted drying experiments were performed at 40, 50, 60 and 70 ºC. The process kinetics was greatly dependent on the temperature, as shown by the activation energy value obtained, 30.95 kJ/mol. Ultrasound application increased the drying kinetics, with its influence being more marked at the lowest temperatures tested. The increase in effective diffusivity and the mass transfer coefficient induced by ultrasound application was similar to the increase induced by an increase of drying temperature of 10 ºC. Drying caused a significant change in the color although the use of ultrasound helped to preserve it at the higher temperatures. Antioxidant capacity and vitamin C content decreased after drying, but the total phenolic content increased. The greatest retention of the antioxidant properties was observed in ultrasonically assisted samples dried at the highest temperatures. In the case of fiber properties, the best results were obtained at intermediate ones. Drying kiwifruit at 60 ºC with ultrasound application could serve as a means of balancing a fast drying process and good final quality.

Investigating the Effects of Different Drying Methods on the Drying Kinetics and Proximate Composition of Zobo Calyces

Hibiscus sabdarrifa are cultivated and consumed as tea, whereas other hibiscus varieties are planted for the fibers they produce. Hibiscus sabdariffa known as roselle, is one of the underexploited food crops with nutritional and food industry processing potential. Thus, this study was undertaken to determine the effects of different drying methods (sun, solar and oven drying) and drying kinetics on the proximate composition of dried calyx (Proximate and Mineral composition) using AOAC Standard. The data obtained from this study was statistically analyzed using Tukey HSD (Tukey Honest Significant Difference). The values of the model constant and other Statistical parameters for moisture ratio were obtained. The two-term exponential model had the highest R2 and the lowest x2 and RMSE value. The model constants, the R2, x2 and RMSE for each model were obtained. The page model had the highest R2 and lowest x2 and RMSE and was selected as the best fit model for describing the drying kinetics zobo calyces in an oven dryer while Logarithmic model and Wang and Sing Model was selected for modeling of zobo calyces in sun and solar dryer respectively. The experimental and predicted moisture ratio values are very close to the each other given the R2 value and the straight-line graph when the predicted moisture ratio is plotted against the experimental moisture ratio. Sample dried with oven dryer gave the highest carotenoid and vitamin C content compared to other drying methods. Therefore, oven dryer is recommended for drying of zobo calyces as compared to sun and solar dryer.

Monitoring Temperature Profile and Drying Kinetics of Thin-Layer Banana Slices under Controlled Forced Convection Conditions

The drying kinetics of banana slices were examined in a forced convection dryer using an infrared camera to monitor the temperature profile and drying kinetics under control conditions. The air temperature was tested at 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C, and 70 °C and the air velocity at 0.2 m/s, 0.5 m/s, and 0.75 m/s, with initial moisture contents of the banana ranging from 76–80% wet basis. The thicknesses of the banana slices being dried were 2, 4, 6, and 8 mm. The optimum drying conditions for the highest drying rate and best color were found to be a temperature of 70 °C, an air velocity of 0.75 m/s, a low relative humidity of 5 to 7%, and banana slices with a thickness of 2 mm. As the air temperature increased, the drying rate and shrinkage also increased. Shrinkage varies concerning moisture loss, and the reduction in radial dimension of banana slices was around 17–23% from the original slice before drying. An empirical mathematical equation was derived by applying the technique of multiple linear regression analysis to the whole dataset of the many experiments of the experimental work. The moisture diffusivity was between 7.88 × 10−10 to 1.04 × 10−10 m2/s, and the average activated energy of the banana was 34.29 kJ/mol. The experimental data were used to fit the drying models. The Midilli model was predicted to produce the closest results to the experimental data.

An Analysis of the Influence of Drying Methods on the Drying Kinetics and Quality of Ilmenite-Coke Composite Pellets

An Analysis of the Influence of Drying Methods on the Drying Kinetics and Quality of Ilmenite-Coke Composite Pellets

Effect of Cabinet Drying on Nutritional Quality and Drying Kinetics of Brinjal (Solanum Melongena L) and Bitter Gourd (Momordica Charantia)

Effect of Cabinet Drying on Nutritional Quality and Drying Kinetics of Brinjal (Solanum Melongena L) and Bitter Gourd (Momordica Charantia)

Mathematical Modelling of Heat and Mass Transfer during Jackfruit Drying Considering Shrinkage

Shrinkage is an obvious phenomenon that occurs when drying plant-based food materials, and it has a crucial influence on heat–mass transfer mechanisms, energy consumption in drying, and dried product quality. The present study aims to develop a theoretical shrinkage model considering the drying kinetics and shrinkage velocity approach during the convective drying of jackfruit. Since there is no theoretical model in the literature that considers the transfer process along with shrinkage phenomena for jackfruit drying, this work focuses on presenting the drying and shrinkage kinetics behaviour through the development of a mathematical model. Two distinct models were developed, each considering the presence or absence of shrinkage phenomena. Model validation was carried out by comparing the predicted results with experimental data from drying tests conducted at 60 °C, and model accuracy was evaluated through statistical error analysis. In the shrinkage-induced model, the shrinkage exhibited a linear relationship with drying time, as the moisture content decreased from 5.25 to 0.47 kg/kg on a dry basis when the temperature increased to 54 °C. Notably, the shrinkage-induced model demonstrated superior performance, displaying low mean absolute error (MAE) values—0.27 kg/kg on a dry basis for moisture content, 2.07 °C for temperature variation, and 0.04 for shrinkage, when compared to the model without shrinkage. Furthermore, the mean relative error (MRE) values for the shrinkage-induced model were 45.71% and 33.33% lower than those of the model without shrinkage for average moisture content and temperature, respectively. The findings of this study provide valuable insights for the food drying industry, offering new knowledge about drying kinetics and shrinkage characteristics that can contribute to the development of energy-efficient drying systems.

OPTIMIZING POROUS MATERIALS WITH PREDICTION THERMAL PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The article presents experimental data, based on which the influence of various factors on the strength and thermophysical characteristics of porous heat-insulating materials was studied.
 Porous bodies in thermal power engineering are used for thermal protection of power plants, various aggregates, in thermal insulation structures of buildings and technological networks. The properties of these materials and the field of use depend on their chemical composition and method of production.
 The task of this research is to obtain a raw material mixture for heat-insulating material of the closed-cell type with increased thermal resistance and porosity by optimizing its qualitative and quantitative composition. The goal is also to improve the method of obtaining porous heat-insulating material by changing the temperature and time regimes in order to improve the physical, mechanical and operational characteristics, which will allow the material to be used in a wider temperature range.
 Based on the dependences of strength and thermophysical properties on the density of the finished material obtained in the work, it was concluded that the best characteristics are the samples of the porous material with the lowest density, which are formed at the maximum humidity of the raw material. Kinetics of drying and heat treatment of the raw material mixture, thermal regimes are the main factors that determine the porosity, strength and thermal conductivity of the finished heat-insulating material.
 Performed laboratory studies of the material proposed in the paper allow choosing the required temperature regimes of heat treatment. Thus, the task of further research is to choose a method of organizing effective heat and mass exchange, modeling these processes, experimental testing of the obtained data, and creating a method for determining the main technological and structural parameters of the method of obtaining a new material.
 The performed experimental studies made it possible to determine the conditions for the implementation of new technologies for the production of porous materials with the possibility of predictive determination of their properties.

Heat and Mass Transfer, Quality, Performance Analysis, and Modeling of Thin Layer Drying Kinetics of Banana Slices

Abstract In this study, experimental works were carried out in three different drying methods named heat exchanger-evacuated tube-assisted drying system (HE-ETADS), greenhouse solar dryer (GHSD), and open sun drying (OSD) to compare thin-layer drying kinetics, concept of mass transfer, and quality assessment of banana slices. Initial moisture content (MC) of banana slices was obtained as 78 ± 2.0% (wb), which decreased to 23.2 ± 2.0% (wb), 25.6 ± 2.0% (wb), and 28.8 ± 2.0% (wb) in all three drying systems, respectively, in 9 h of drying time. Average drying rate was evaluated as 7.89, 7.65, and 7.25 g water/g solid h in HE-ETADS, GHSD, and OSD, respectively. Weibull model (WM) defines thin-layer drying kinetics of banana slices in all three drying processes. Maximum hardness and shrinkage factor of dried banana slices were obtained as 373.6 g and 75%, respectively, in HE-ETADS. Effective moisture diffusivity, activation energy, and mass transfer coefficient were computed as 1.11–2.48 × 10−07 m2 s−1, 30.25 kJ/mole, and 3.21–1.0 × 10−04 m/s, in HE-ETADS. Similarly, in GHSD and OSD, these factors were observed as 1.21–2.34 × 10−07 m2 s−1, 41.25 kJ/mole, 3.15–1.0 × 10−04 m/s and 1.3–2.21 × 10−07 m2 s−1, 56.89 kJ/mole, 3.01–1.0 × 10−04 m/s. Maximum total color changes were noted in OSD. Hence, HE-ETADS can potentially dry high moisture content crops effectively within a minimum drying period.

Evaluation of Thin Layer Models for Simulating Drying Kinetics of Black Nightshade Seeds in a Solar-Exhaust Gas Greenhouse Dryer

The current study aimed to use, besides solar, waste heat from exhaust gas of a diesel engine operated for milling of grain, to dry black nightshade seeds. Assessment of thin layer models for simulating drying kinetics of black nightshade seeds was performed in a solar-exhaust gas greenhouse dryer operated on solar; solar-exhaust gas; and exhaust gas modes. In solar mode, seeds took 11 hours to reach a final moisture content of 7.13% (db) from an initial one of 89.34% (db). In solar-exhaust gas mode seeds were dried from an initial moisture content of 92.57% (db) to a final one of 6.07% (db) in 10 hours. In exhaust gas mode it took 14 hours to dry black nightshade seeds from an initial moisture content of 88.84% (db) to a final one of 9.42% (db). Newton, Page, Logarithmic, and Henderson and Pabis thin layer drying models were fitted to experimental data and the best model was selected based on low root mean squared error (RMSE) and interpretation of residual plots. To best explain the prediction of thin layer drying of black nightshade seeds, based on the lowest value of RMSE, Page model was found suitable for solar mode with RMSE of 0.01147206, Logarithmic model was found suitable for both solar-exhaust gas and exhaust gas modes of drying with RMSE of 0.0172098 and 0.02315325 respectively. In conclusion, the thin layer modeling approach can be used to provide design data for a solar-exhaust gas greenhouse dryer.

Effect of Cold Plasma Pretreatment Coupled with Osmotic Dehydration on Drying Kinetics and Quality of Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus)

Effect of Cold Plasma Pretreatment Coupled with Osmotic Dehydration on Drying Kinetics and Quality of Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus)

Microwave-assisted drying of Cymbogopon nardus leaves: Kinetics, moisture diffusivity, energy, and emission study

The essential oils extracted from Cymbopogon nardus (C. nardus) leaves have a distinct fragrance containing citronellal, citronellol, and geraniol, which has led to their extensive use in the pharmaceutical and perfume industry. The potential of C. nardus might be limited by the short shelf life due to high moisture content, thus a drying process and kinetics analysis is vastly researched to preserve the beneficial compound longer. A microwave-assisted drying method in the present study was analysed by the calculation of the effective moisture diffusivity, activation energy, CO2 emission, and specific energy consumption (SEC) at various microwave power levels (136, 264, 440, and 616 W) and foliage leaf mass (5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 g). Through ten different drying kinetics model fitting and validated by five statistical parameters, Jena-Das model showed the best fit to the foliage drying at various mass and microwave powers. Effective moisture diffusivity was found to increase with microwave power and decrease with decreasing mass. The drying of C. nardus leaf resulted in Ea = 38.6299 Wg-1 in variation of microwave power and Ea = 9.1592 Wg-1 in variation of foliage mass. The lowest CO2 and SEC emissions were found at power of 616 W. Thus, according to mass variation, the lowest CO2 values are at 5 g mass and 20 g SEC. These findings may encourage the development of material analysis in industrial drying technologies to support the availability and quality of specific products.

Oven, Temperature-Controlled Microwave, and Shade Drying Effects on Drying Kinetics, Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Knotweed (Polygonum cognatum Meissn.).

In this study, the plant node was dried in an oven (40, 50 and 60 °C), shade and temperature-controlled microwave (40, 50 and 60 °C) methods. Statistically (p<0.05), the values closest to the color values of fresh grass were determined in an oven at 40 °C drying temperature. Effective diffusion values varied between 8.85×10-8 -5.65×10-6 m2 s-1 . While the activation energy was 61.28 kJ mol-1 in the oven, it was calculated as 85.24 kJ mol-1 in the temperature-controlled microwave. Drying data was best estimated in the Midilli-Küçük (R2 0.9998) model oven at 50 °C. The highest SMER value was calculated as 0.0098 kg kWh-1 in the temperature-controlled microwave drying method. The lowest SEC value in the temperature-controlled microwave was determined as 24.03 kWh kg-1 . It was determined that enthalpy values varied between -2484.66/-2623.38 kJ mol-1 , entropy values between -162.04/-122.65 J mol-1 and Gibbs free energy values between 453335.22-362581.40 kJ mol-1 . Drying rate values were calculated in the range of 0.0127-0.9820 g moisture g dry matter-1 in the temperature-controlled microwave, 0.0003-0.0762 g dry matter-1 in the oven, and 0.001-0.0058 g moisture g dry moisture matter-1 in the shade. Phenolic content 6957.79 μg GAE g-1 fw - 48322.27 μg GAE g-1 dw, flavonoid content 3806.67 mg KE L-1 fw - 22200.00 mg KE L-1 dw and antioxidant capacity 43.35 μmol TE g-1 fw - 323.47 μmol TE g-1 dw. The highest chlorophyll values were obtained from samples dried in an oven at 40 °C. According to the findings, it is recommended to dry the knotweed (Polygonum cognatum Meissn.) plant in a temperature-controlled microwave oven at low temperatures. In this study, in terms of drying kinetics and energy parameters, a temperature-controlled microwave dryer of 60 °C is recommended, while in terms of quality characteristics, oven 40 °C and shade methods are recommended.

Convective and microwave drying kinetics of white cabbage (Brassica oleracae var capitata L.): Mathematical modelling, thermodynamic properties, energy consumption and reconstitution kinetics

The increasing cost of energy and low cost of white cabbage (WC) has made storage of white cabbage in cold storage room capital intensive, thus alternative and sustainable preservation methods are being sought. To adopt drying as a sustainable preservation method for WC, study of the heat transfer processes and energy use is very essential. This study presents the results of the drying kinetics, thermodynamic properties and energy consumption kinetics during drying of WC in hot air oven dryer (HAD) and microwave dryer (MD), as well as the reconstitution kinetics of WC. The results showed that both samples dried under a single rate drying period. The effective moisture diffusivity of HAD and MD ranges from 3.26 ×10−9to 6.07×10−9m2s−1 and 1.23×10−8 to 4.02×10−8m2/s, respectively. The activation energy of the samples dried in HAD and MD is 28.59933 kJmol−1K−1 and 10.026 J/g s−1, respectively. The specific energy consumption (SEC) was higher at the lowest drying temperature and microwave power level. SEC kinetic study revealed higher SEC at lower drying temperature and microwave power, and was intense right from the beginning of the drying process. Luka et al. model proved more appropriate in simulating the drying kinetic of WC. Thermodynamic analysis of the dryers revealed that the drying process was endergonic and endothermic. Drying methods and water temperature influenced the rate of reconstitution of WC.

Freeze-drying Cannabis sativa L. using real-time relative humidity monitoring and mathematical modeling for the cannabis industry

Pre-freezing has an impact on the drying time and physiochemical properties of cannabis. This study investigated the relationship between sample mass reduction and relative humidity during freeze-drying and the effects of pre-freezing and freeze-drying temperature on cannabis drying kinetics, trichome structure, and color, in addition to cannabinoid and terpene concentrations. Three cannabis accessions, Qrazy Train, Qrazy Apple, and Qrazy Angel, were dried at 10°C, and 20°C, with different pre-freezing conditions (−20°C and −40°C). Pre-freezing rates of 0.13°C min−1 for both Qrazy Train and Qrazy Angel and 0.15°C min−1 for Qrazy Apple were recorded for pre-freezing at − 20°C and significantly (p < 0.05) increased by 73.5%, 71.2%, and 72.9% for Qrazy Train, Qrazy Apple, and Qrazy Angel, respectively, when inflorescence was pre-frozen at − 40°C. Rational regression model best explains the relationship between mass reduction and relative humidity during drying, while drying kinetics can be described using the Page and Logarithmic models. Total color changes ranged from 1.16 to 9.69 total color changes measured for all dried samples compared to respective fresh, undried samples were not significantly (p < 0.05) different. THCA concentrations for fresh, undried Cannabis sativa L. accessions ranged from 214.4 mg g−1 to 257.5 mg g−1; this was higher than their CBDA concentrations, ranging from 0.03 mg g−1 to 0.1 mg g−1. Freeze-drying increased [CBDA], [CBGA], and [CBG] in dried samples ranging from 0.45 mg g−1 to 0.38 mg g−1, 2.87 mg g−1 to 4.91 mg g−1, and 0.57 mg g−1 to 1.33 mg g−1, respectively. Mean terpene concentration ranged from 17.7 mg g−1 to 40.3 mg g−1. Irrespective of the pre-freezing condition or cannabis accession, drying at 20°C reduced drying time by 10.4–31.9%. Findings could be of industrial relevance for improving post-harvest processes while maintaining quality of this regulated crop.

The Effect of Various Methods on the Drying Kinetics and Mathematical Modelling of Seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax)

ABSTRACT The drying of sea bass was examined using oven and infrared (IR) at 60–80°C, and microwave (MW) at 140–350W. Effective moisture diffusivities and activation energies were determined, and mathematical models were applied to the data. Moisture content was found as 1.8571 kg water/kg dry matter and reduced to 0.1009–0.0798, 0.0767–0.0520, and 0.0783–0.066 kg water/kg dry matter for oven, IR, and MW, respectively. Drying times were found as 300–180, 315–135, and 18–5 for oven, IR, and MW, respectively. The most compatible models found as Midilli and Kucuk for oven, Aghbashlo et al. for IR, and Alibas for MW.

Impact of the greenhouse drying modes of two-phase olive pomace on the energy, exergy, economic and environmental (4E) performance indicators

This research aims to valorize olive pomace waste as bio-combustible. Therefore, the drying of two-phase olive pomace in a solar greenhouse dryer was studied under the weather conditions of Marrakech, Morocco. The experimental results of natural, hybrid, and forced hybrid drying modes of two-phase olive pomace were used to determine the energy and exergy efficiencies of the greenhouse dryer and to analyze the kinetics of drying. Moreover, the economic viability and environmental suitability of the three drying modes were also investigated. The results indicated that the humidity level of the product dropped from 54% to 4% (wt%) in 28, 19 and 14 h for the natural, hybrid, and hybrid forced drying modes, respectively. The effective moisture diffusivity varied significantly between the drying modes with a lowest average value of 1.28 × 10−09 m2/s and a highest average value of 2.71 × 10−09 m2/s associated to the natural and hybrid forced drying modes, respectively. The drying and exergy efficiency of the hybrid forced greenhouse dryer was improved by 31.61%, 51.95%, and 36.91%, 21.05% compared to the natural and hybrid greenhouse drying modes, respectively. The environmental analysis showed that the carbon emissions, and carbon mitigation depend strongly on the greenhouse drying mode, and the material used for the construction of the drying system. The hybrid forced greenhouse dryer ensured the mitigation of 1.29 and 1.15 times more CO2, compared to the natural, and hybrid greenhouse dryers. The economic analysis revealed a payback period of 1.27 years, 1.03 years, and 0.67 for the natural, hybrid, and hybrid forced modes for a selling price of 3 (MAD), which are very small compared to the lifespan of the greenhouse dryer (35 years).