Dry Surface Research Articles

The Electric Spatula: Killing Weeds with Pulsed Microshocks from a Flat-Plate Electrode

Seeking an easy-to-deploy, energy-efficient, non-herbicide weed control method, we tested a flat-plate electrode to apply pulsed electric microshocks (PMS) to a grass and four broadleaf weed species. The method can be deployed via a hand-held unit or as part of a fully automated system to control escape weeds in field crops. The effectiveness of the treatments and the relative energy discharges when applying similar electric doses to the plant leaves or to the plant when pressed to the soil with a flat-plate electrode were compared. The method killed only half of the treated Lolium multiflorum “Winter Star” plants, well below our target rate, but significantly reduced growth rates and indicated that effective treatment of <1.0 MJ ha−1 for treating five plants m−2 is possible. Polygonum aviculare L., Amaranthus powellii S. Wats., Amaranthus deflexus, and Solanum nitidibaccatum Bitter plants were successfully controlled, with the energy required to kill 100% of seedlings varying from 0.1 to 0.9 MJ ha−1, indicating that broadleaf weeds are more susceptible. This easily met our target effectiveness and efficiency goals. The discharged energy increased when the electrode pressed the plant to a dry soil surface rather than to the leaves only and increased further when the electrode pressed the plant to a wet soil surface.

Infiltration Measurements during Dry Conditions in an Urban Park in Ljubljana, Slovenia

A thorough understanding of the hydrologic mechanisms that control the movement of water through the soil is essential for developing effective stormwater management strategies. Infiltration is critical for determining the amount of water entering the soil and controlling surface runoff. Spatial and temporal variations in soil properties strongly affect infiltration rates, which underscores the importance of evaluating field-specific values for hydraulic conductivity, which are also highly dependent on the chosen measurement and evaluation methods. The objective of this study is to determine and compare soil hydraulic conductivity under dry conditions using two field measurement techniques, namely the double-ring infiltrometer (DRI) and the mini-disk infiltrometer (MDI). The results demonstrate the importance of performing multiple replicates of infiltration tests, especially during the dry season, as the initial dry surface caused deviations in hydraulic conductivity estimates for both methods used (DRI and MDI). Significant spatial variability was observed within the radius of the test replicates over short distances (<1 m). In addition, experimental infiltration curves for a selected site were used to evaluate and compare soil hydraulic parameters through infiltration modeling. In general, the Philip, Green-Ampt, and Smith-Parlange theoretical models showed a better fit to the experimental DRI data than the semi-empirical Horton model.

A DFT-D+U study on comparative adsorption of s-triazine with xanthate and dithiocarbamate collectors on dry and hydrated cooperite (1 0 1) surface

The high demand of platinum has drawn much attention on the recovery of the platinum group minerals (PGMs). Cooperite (PtS) is one of the major sources of platinum which is found in high concentration as sulphide minerals in the Platreef. This current study used the density functional theory with dispersion correction method and applying the U-parameters (DFT-D + U) to understand the interaction of the well-known collectors, sodium normal butyl xanthate (SNBX) and sodium normal butyl dithiocarbamate (SNBDTC) which are utilised in industry in comparison with the green novel sodium 2,6-dithio-4-butylamino-1,3,5-triazine (SDTBAT) collectors on dry and hydrated cooperite (101) surface. In the adsorptions, different adsorption sites were initially tested on dry surface, to identify the most preferred active and exothermic site of the colletors on the surface. The SNBX and SNBDTC collectors preferred to form a binuclear-bidentate, while the SDTBAT formed trinuclear-tridentate bonding on the 3-coordinated Pt atoms of the PtS (101) surface. The adsorption energies on dry surface were in the order as: SDTBAT > SNBDTC > SNBX. The adsorption energies of collectors on hydrated PtS (101) surface also followed similar adsorption trend (SDTBAT > SNBDTC > SNBX). This suggested that SDTBAT had strong affinity with the surface. Most importantly it was found that the hydrated condition adsorption energies were significantly reduced compared to the dry condition adsorption energies. It was apparent that the SDTBAT collector displayed an ability to improve the recovery of the cooperite mineral and therefore a potential replacement of the well-known dithiocarbamate and xanthate collectors for use in PGMs.

An experimental study of the events that follow a drop hitting a small surface

The events that follow a drop hitting a solid surface depend not only on the drop's initial conditions and drop properties but also, in a significant way, on the target-to-drop area ratio. For an impaction surface with a limited-size area, the events are unique and are significantly different from those occurring when the drop hits an infinite flat surface.In this study, we present a wide range of new visual observations focusing on the events that follow a drop hitting a dry solid surface of different small sizes. In particular, our interest is in the deposition, receding breakup, and prompt splash phases. We analyze the results while using non-dimensional groups, graphically depict the various events on a map, and define the borders between them. In addition, we offer a group of criteria that differentiate between events for a wide range of target-to-drop ratio, and Reynolds, and Webber numbers.

Estimation of fine sediment stocks in gravel bed rivers including the sand fraction

ABSTRACTFine sediment stored in the gravel bed is an important component of river systems. Current field protocols usually allow evaluation of the silt–clay fraction of fine sediment stocks only and neglect the sand fraction. This study proposes a new protocol to quantify fine sediment stocks, including the sand fraction inside the gravel bed matrix. Fine sediment stocks were sampled within patches of 0.30 m × 0.30 m on the dry gravel bed surface, separating the surface layer and the subsurface layer. The grain‐size distribution of the samples was obtained by field sieving (10 mm, 2 mm, 500 μm and 100 μm) over a bucket, using a known volume of water. The mass of the fraction below 100 μm was measured based on the concentration within the bucket. The local stocks were then integrated over the whole river reach by assigning local stocks to facies, in which fine sediment stocks were assumed to be homogeneously distributed. The methodology was applied to a 1 km long reach of the River Galabre (Southern French Alps), characterized by significant fine sediment stocks and upstream sediment input. Results from local measurements show a large amount of sand in both surface and subsurface layers. The quantity of sand can reach up to three times the quantity of silt–clay. An estimation of porosity showed that fine material may play an important role in structuring the bed, since porosity increases with increasing fine sediment content. The potential fine sediment stock that can be resuspended due to channel migration is found to be of the same order of magnitude as the sediment budget estimated from the measured flux in the upstream hydrometric station of the studied reach.

A probabilistic reasoning approach to analyze the severity of single-vehicle crashes at mid-ramp locations

Freeway ramps are one of the roadway elements that are considered as crash-prone sites with relatively more crashes per mile than other freeway segments. Among other crash types that occurred on freeway ramps, single-vehicle crashes have been found to be more severe. Thus, understanding the factors influencing the severity of single-vehicle crashes on freeway ramps is essential in improving the safety of our limited-access facilities. This study adopted a discrete Bayesian network (BN) approach to explore the probabilistic relationship among the potential factors associated with the severity of single-vehicle crashes at mid-ramp locations. The analysis was based on 6 041 single-vehicle crashes that occurred at the mid-ramp locations in California from 2009 to 2017. The findings indicated that ramp type, ramp traffic volume, road surface condition, and time of day were directly associated with the severity of single-vehicle crashes at the mid-ramp locations. The interdependency of off-ramps, ramp AADT of less than 13 000 vehicles per day, dry road surface condition, and off-peak hours were associated with the highest risk of fatal/severe injury crashes involving a single-vehicle. The study findings could potentially be used by transportation agencies in planning and implementing several strategies to improve the safety of freeway ramps.

Effects of different irrigation methods on regional climate in North China Plain: A modeling study

Agricultural irrigation is important in boosting crop yields in especially water-stressed regions, but little is known about the distinct climatic effects induced by different irrigation methods, particularly in the North China Plain (NCP) where irrigation is applied extensively. Here we examine the climatic effects of flood (FI), sprinkler (SI) and drip irrigation (DI) over NCP during the growing season using dynamic irrigation schemes implemented into a coupled land-atmosphere model. The model generally captures the spatial distribution of surface temperature, relative humidity and precipitation. The changes in regional average surface temperature induced by FI, SI and DI are –0.43, –0.53 and –0.19 °C, respectively. The relatively larger cooling effect for SI than that for FI is associated with enhanced cloud formation. By shifting the surface energy balance, FI and SI cause a wet, cool, cloudy and shallow planetary boundary layer, while DI exhibits the smallest effect and indeed inhibits cloud formation. The increases in convective available potential energy and precipitable water induced by FI and SI enhance convective precipitation over NCP by 0.8–1.2 mm d–1. In contrast, the reduced precipitation due to surface cooling within DI leads to a warmer and drier surface from June to August, which likely increases upper-level geopotential heights and in turn suppresses precipitation in a series of climate feedbacks. The distinct hydrometeorological interactions and feedbacks arising from different irrigation methods are likely related to different irrigation rates, frequencies and approaches of water application. While DI is recognized as the most water-saving method, it also generates the least surface cooling among the three methods and is thus less effective in safeguarding grain yields against rising temperatures. Our study emphasizes the need for more sustainable and adaptive irrigation methods to ensure food security, water conservation and climate stability in the face of climate change.

Analytic solution and numerical validation of the transient regime in dry surface grinding

In the framework of Samara–Valencia model for heat transfer in dry surface grinding, analytical expressions for the time-dependent temperature field of the workpiece during the transient regime in which the wheel is engaged (cut-in) and disengaged (cut-out) from the workpiece are calculated. The main assumption we consider is a constant heat flux profile along the contact zone between the wheel and the workpiece. According to the analytical expression obtained for the temperature field, a closed-form expression for the maximum temperature during the cut-in transient regime has been obtained. Further, a very rapid method for the numerical evaluation of maximum temperature during the cut-out is described. This maximum temperature is responsible of the thermal damage of the workpiece. Experimental evidence shows that the thermal damage risk is greater during the cut-out transient regime. The present analytical model reproduces this experimental feature. Finally, the analytical results have been numerically validated using FEM analysis and are intended to be very useful for the monitoring of the online grinding process in order to avoid thermal damage.

Analysis of freezing of a sessile water droplet on surfaces over a range of wettability

HypothesisNonwetting surfaces, by virtue of their water-repelling trait, offer desirable anti-icing characteristics. Surface roughness, type and wettability are important interfacial characteristics that affect the icing dynamics that can be tailored to achieve desired anti-icing designs. Experiments and SimulationsThe present study systematically explores the effect of surface roughness on the freezing behaviour of water droplets on surfaces ranging in their wettability. Surfaces with tailored textures and wettability were fabricated using chemical etching and electrodeposition by varying the voltage. The surfaces studied include bare copper, five different dry nonwetting copper surfaces, and five different lubricant-infused copper surfaces that ranged in surface texture fractal dimension from nearly 1.0 to 1.92 and wettability measures of average water contact angle from 91° to 162° and sliding angle from less than 3° to greater than 50°. A computational model is developed to simulate the freezing dynamics on the surfaces studied. FindingsWith increasing roughness features, the freezing time increased due to the dual effects of increased contact angle and poor interfacial conductance caused by trapped air or infused liquid within the asperity textures. In general, the nonwetting surfaces increased the freezing time by a factor of at least 1.33 and up to about 3.2 compared to freezing on bare copper surfaces. The computational model shows close agreement with experimental measurements on the freeze front progression as well as freeze time. Design guidelines on the suitability of the different nonwetting surfaces for anti-icing purposes are derived from the systematic study, with the overall design recommendation favoring lubricant infused surfaces.

Influence of surface treatment on metal dusting resistance of welds

AbstractWelds of the commercial Ni‐based alloys 602 CA, 699 XA, 601 and 690 were exposed under harsh metal dusting conditions. The pit formation was compared for as‐welded, brushed, ground, glass bead blasted, steel shot peened and dry cathodic pickled surfaces. Surface treatments were applied by industrial partners. When (stainless) steels were involved in the surface treatment, Fe contaminations acted as catalyst sites for pit initiation. A fast metal dusting attack was also observed on dry cathodic pickled samples. A beneficial effect was attributed to deformation of the sub‐surface zone, as it provides diffusion paths for oxide formers (by grinding and glass bead blasting). In the same region, formation of α‐Cr (BCC) precipitates was observed. The best performance was found for samples where the weld bead was fully flattened by grinding to P40 grit. In addition, it was demonstrated that on‐site slurry aluminization further enhances the resistance against metal dusting attack.

Human pathogenic bacteria on high-touch dry surfaces can be controlled by warming to human-skin temperature under moderate humidity.

Healthcare-associated infections have become a major health issue worldwide. One route of transmission of pathogenic bacteria is through contact with "high-touch" dry surfaces, such as handrails. Regular cleaning of surfaces with disinfectant chemicals is insufficient against pathogenic bacteria and alternative control methods are therefore required. We previously showed that warming to human-skin temperature affected the survival of pathogenic bacteria on dry surfaces, but humidity was not considered in that study. Here, we investigated environmental factors that affect the number of live bacteria on dry surfaces in hospitals by principal component analysis of previously-collected data (n = 576, for CFU counts), and experimentally verified the effect of warming to human-skin temperature on the survival of pathogenic bacteria on dry surfaces under humidity control. The results revealed that PCA divided hospital dry surfaces into four groups (Group 1~4) and hospital dry surfaces at low temperature and low humidity (Group 3) had much higher bacterial counts as compared to the others (Group 1 and 4) (p<0.05). Experimentally, warming to human-skin temperature (37°C with 90% humidity) for 18~72h significantly suppressed the survival of pathogenic bacteria on dry surfaces, such as plastic surfaces [p<0.05 vs. 15°C (Escherichia coli DH5α, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and blaNDM-5 E. coli)] or handrails [p<0.05 vs. 15~25°C (E. coli DH5α, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, A. baumannii)], under moderate 55% humidity. Furthermore, intermittent heating to human-skin temperature reduced the survival of spore-forming bacteria (Bacillus subtilis) (p<0.01 vs. continuous heating to human-skin temperature). NhaA, an Na+/H+ antiporter, was found to regulate the survival of bacteria on dry surfaces, and the inhibitor 2-aminoperimidine enhanced the effect of warming at human-skin temperature on the survival of pathogenic bacteria (E. coli DH5α, S. aureus, A. baumannii) on dry surfaces. Thus, warming to human-skin temperature under moderate humidity is a useful method for impairing live pathogenic bacteria on high-touch surfaces, thereby helping to prevent the spread of healthcare-associated infections.

Observed and simulated local climate responses to tropical deforestation

Tropical deforestation has local and regional effects on climate, but the sign and magnitude of these effects are still poorly constrained. Here we used satellite observations to evaluate the local land surface temperature and precipitation response to tropical deforestation in historical simulations from 24 CMIP6 models. We found tropical forest loss leads to an observed local dry season warming and reduced wet and dry season precipitation across the range of scales (0.25°-2°) analysed. At the largest scale analysed (2°), we observed a warming of 0.018 ± 0.001 °C per percentage point of forest loss (°C %−1), broadly captured in the multi-model mean response of 0.017 ± 0.005 °C %−1. The multi-model mean correctly simulates reduced precipitation due to forest loss in the dry season but simulates increased precipitation due to forest loss in the wet season, opposite to the observed response. We found that the simulated dry season surface temperature and precipitation changes due to forest loss depend on the simulated surface albedo change, with less warming and less drying in models with greater increases in surface albedo due to forest loss. Increased recognition of the local and regional climate benefits of tropical forests is needed to support sustainable land use policy.

Assessing high resolution thermal monitoring of complex intertidal environments from space: The case of ECOSTRESS at Rias Baixas, NW Iberia

Currently, thermal sensors on satellites and other orbital platforms with high spatial resolution designed to monitor the oceans are often insufficient to assess the surface temperature of small bodies of water or within the coastal boundary layer. As the accuracy and sensitivity of remote sensing satellites improve, the demand for more accurate and up-to-date basic data sets for calibration increases. The quality of the thermal data collected by ECOSTRESS on the International Space Station allows the characterization of thermal stress levels in coastal ecosystems with a high spatial resolution of 70 m and a return time from hours to 5 days. This study focused on the calibration of ECOSTRESS estimates with in situ surface temperature data from sensors installed at 3 cm depth in the sediment on the intertidal muddy sandflats of three of the Rías Baixas in Galicia, NW Iberian Peninsula, from 2019 to 2021. A final number of 45 ECOSTRESS temperature images were analyzed. From these, 20% contained substantial georeferencing errors which had to be corrected manually with GIS software tools. We applied the Fourier's law of Heat Conduction to derive surface estimates from loggers sub-surface measurements that could be directly compared with ECOSTRESS data. Overall, a good calibration which explained more than 80% of ECOSTRESS temperature estimates for the whole dataset was obtained, but with an intrinsic cold bias around 1.39 °C. When temperatures at a depth of 3 cm were used, the linear fit became worse and the negative bias increased to 1.49 °C. Closer inspection revealed that night measurements were responsible for this larger deviation, as ECOSTRESS estimates became much colder compared to within sediment measurements because of the combined effect of the instrument intrinsic bias and nocturnal surface cooling. The best calibration was obtained when surface estimates were calculated just for the nighttime, as the cold bias decreased to 0.93 °C. More importantly, during hot daytime conditions in emersion above 20 °C, ECOSTRESS data matched surface temperature estimates, probably because of a better performance of ECOSTRESS algorithm at dry surfaces with lower emissivity. Thus, during the most ecologically relevant periods when high temperatures could drive thermal stress in many commercially-important bivalve species, ECOSTRESS provides accurate surface estimates that can be used to derive sub surface temperatures at the depths at which the different burrowing organisms live. We thus conclude that this instrument constitutes an important global tool to examine thermal stress at an unprecedented spatial scale for complex sea-land boundary systems.

Machine learning-based splash prediction model for drops impact on dry solid surfaces

The impact of drops on dry solid surfaces has important applications in engineering. The post-impact behavior of drops can be classified into non-splash and splash, and there is a lack of splash prediction models that well consider the independent and coupled effects of liquid properties, drop impact characteristics, and surface properties. In this study, machine learning methods of Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) are applied to build splash prediction models and analyze the effects of different features. The RF model achieves good prediction accuracy and identifies the roughness R*, Weber number We, Reynolds number Re, and contact angle θeq as the most influential parameters, with decreasing importance. The interpretability analysis shows the increasing splashing tendency with increasing We, Re, and R* and decreasing cos θeq, and a special case of non-splash by drops impact on hydrophobic surfaces with cos θeq ≈ −0.45 is found, which can be explained by the coupled effects of drop and surface features. The classical splash prediction model, K-parameter model, is improved by SVM in an explicit form and considering the effects of liquid properties, drop impact characteristics, and surface properties. The improved K-parameter model has good performance for surfaces with various roughness and wettability, and its prediction accuracy reaches 86.49%, which is significantly higher than 67.57% of the K-parameter model, 46.49% of the Riboux and Gordillo model, and 66.10% of the Zhang model. This study is expected to provide valuable insight into the control of non-splash or splash of drops according to different requirements during applications.

Designing 3D-Printed Mesh-Covered Fluid Collecting Racks (MFCRs) to Prevent Moisture-Related COVID-19 Sampling Interruptions in Taiwan.

Background: A sampling platform (or table) set at the patient's side in a zero-exposure screening center (booth) might be used for specimen collection during public health crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. However, repeated sanitization causes moisture problems. Such moisture problems would not only be noted by patients but also interrupt the sampling process. In this study, we aimed to develop 3D-printed mesh-covered fluid collecting racks (MFCRs) to address surface moisture problems to determine whether MFCRs can shorten the sampling time. Methods: This was an observational, descriptive, and cross-sectional study. We observed the reasons for sampling interruptions related to surface moisture problems among patients who used MFCRs or did not (April 28-30, 2022). We used a 3D printer to make an MFCR, which measured 14.5 cm in width and length and 1.0 cm in height. The MFCR allows the ethanol to drain through the mesh into the fluid collection rack below to leave a relatively dry surface on the mesh. Finally, we calculated the median time to finish sampling between MFCRs and non-MFCRs. Results: A total of 400 patients were randomly observed (using MFCRs, n = 200; non-MFCRs, n = 200). Patients in the non-MFCR group were more likely to interrupt the sampling process (n = 39, 19.5%) by noting surface moisture problems than those in the MFCR group (n = 3, 1.5%). Two of the major interruptions, "asking questions about the moist surface" (from 12% to 1%) and "slowing down their actions" (from 4.5% to 0.5%), were obviously improved by using MFCRs. Overall, the median sampling time was significantly shorter (p < 0.001) in the group using MFCRs (0.6 min) than in the group using non-MFCRs (1.5 min). The MFCRs shortened the sampling time by 60%, which might be associated with decreasing interruptions caused by surface moisture problems. Conclusions: The 3D printed MFCRs are suitable for handling surface moisture problems caused by repeated sanitizations. More importantly, the MFCRs might be associated with decreasing interruptions caused by moisture problems.

Water absorption characteristics in autoclaved aerated concrete, diatomite, and calcium silicate board

AbstractWater absorption into cementitious materials has been discussed to be anomalous because of the nonlinearity of cumulative water absorbed with the square root of time. In this study, the water absorption characteristics in porous materials such as autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), diatomite, and calcium silicate board were examined focusing on the different pore structures and the gravity effect. The one‐dimensional water absorption into diatomite and calcium silicate board both from top and bottom surface can be explained by water flow under its own capillary pressure based on the Washburn equation. On the other hand, the cumulative water volume absorbed into AAC was not proportional to the square root of time. The effect of gravity affected the absorption rate but was small for the ultimate cumulative water volume absorbed in AAC. The moisture content near the top drying surface was only half of that near the bottom wetting surface. It was hypothesized that the capillary pores in AAC can be dried while the fine pores at nano meter scale can be saturated under the pore humidity near the drying surface. It is concluded that the anomaly of water absorption in AAC may be affected by complicated pore structures with fine pores as well as drying conditions opposite to wetting surfaces.

Super‐Tough and Fast Adhesion of Soft Elastomer Based on Strong Noncovalent Interaction in Diverse Environments

AbstractSoft polymer adhesives to achieve high adhesion energy on both dry and wet surfaces in a simple and universal way is a significant challenge. Here, this work introduces an inherently adhesive and transparent elastomer that exhibits in situ adhesion capabilities across a variety of surfaces. These surfaces include, but are not limited to, glass, steel, aluminum, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE) sheets, with the remarkable feature of requiring no chemical reaction for adhesion. The elastomer adhesive achieves a super‐high adhesion force above 3000 N m−1 within 10 min, far superior to previously reported intrinsically adhesive polymers. The strong adhesion derives from the increase in hydrogen bonding density between the adhesive elastomer and adherend, high mobility of polymer chains, and matrix hysteresis during interfacial separation. Moreover, the noncovalent interactions can weaken at low temperatures, allowing the intrinsically adhesive elastomer to be easily removed when frozen. The development of intrinsically adhesive and transparent elastomer with super‐high adhesion force on both dry and wet surfaces provides a meaningful way for a wide range of applications.

Application of the Apriori Algorithm for Traffic Crash Analysis in Thailand

Accidents pose significant obstacles to economic progress and quality of life, especially in developing countries. Thailand faces such challenges and this research seeks to assess the frequency and most common causes of road accidents that lead to fatalities. This study employed the Apriori algorithm to examine the interrelationships among factors contributing to accidents in order to inform policymaking for reducing accident rates, minimizing economic and human losses, and enhancing the effectiveness of the healthcare system. By analyzing road accident data from 2015 to 2020 in Thailand (167,820 accidents causing THB 1.13 billion in damages), this article specifically focuses on the drivers responsible for fatal highway accidents. The findings reveal several interconnected variables that heighten the likelihood of fatalities, such as male gender, exceeding speed limits, riding a motorbike, traveling on straight roads, encountering dry surface conditions, and clear weather. An association rule analysis underscores the increased risk of injury or death in traffic accidents.

Mechanism of Methanol Synthesis from CO2 Hydrogenation over Cu/γ-Al2O3 Interface: Influences of Surface Hydroxylation

The adsorption and hydrogenation of carbon dioxide on γ-Al2O3(110) surface-supported copper clusters of different sizes are investigated using density functional theory calculations. Our results show that the activation of CO2 is most obvious at the Cu/γ-Al2O3 interface containing the size-selected Cu4 cluster. It is interesting that the CO2 activation is more pronounced at the partially hydroxyl-covered interface. The catalytic mechanisms of CO2 conversion to methanol at the dry and hydroxylated Cu4/γ-Al2O3 interfaces via the formate route and the pathway initiated through the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide produced by the reverse water–gas shift reaction are further explored. On both interfaces, the formate pathway is identified as the preferred reaction pathway, in which the hydrogenation of HCOO to H2COO is the rate-limiting step (RLS). However, since the surface OH group can act as a hydrogen source in some elementary reactions, unlike the dry surface, the production of H2COOH species along the formate pathway is found at the hydroxylated interface. In addition, the introduction of OH at the interface leads to an increase in the kinetic barrier of the RLS, indicating that surface hydroxylation has a negative effect on the catalytic activity of CO2 conversion to CH3OH at the Cu/γ-Al2O3 interface.

Behavioural and anatomical observations of the amphibious snail Pirenella conica (Gastropoda: Potamididae)

The coastal snail Pirenella conica (Gastropoda: Potamididae) was observed and photographed in its mud flat habitat (Alaçati Bay, Karaburun Peninsula, Türkiye) and in the laboratory. The snails were amphibious; they moved about in damp sediment when the sea had receded and readily left the water in the laboratory to move on dry surfaces. The siphon, normally used for the intake of oxygenated water in submerged snails, remained open when snails were out of water, suggesting that they can also breathe air. Videos of snails taken from below explained the mechanics of their stop-and-go locomotion. Close-up photographs also revealed the presence of a pallial eye at the top of the siphonal canal. When a snail was partially buried in soft sediment, its pallial eye remained above the sediment. The pallial eye may orient the snail and help it detect potential dangers when its tentacular eyes are obstructed.