Drying Of Porous Materials Research Articles

Optical coherence tomography for vulnerability assessment of sandstone

Sandstone is an important cultural heritage material, in both architectural and natural settings, such as neolithic rock art panels. The majority of deterioration effects in porous materials such as sandstone are influenced by the presence and movement of water through the material. The presence of water within the porous network of a material results in changes in the optical coherence tomography signal intensity that can be used to monitor the wetting front of water penetration of dry porous materials at various depths. The technique is able to detect wetting front velocities from 1 cm s(-1) to 10(-6) cm s(-1), covering the full range of hydraulic conductivities likely to occur in natural sandstones from pervious to impervious.

Monitoring moisture movements in building materials using X-ray attenuation: Influence of beam-hardening of polychromatic X-ray photon beams

X-ray attenuation measurements are commonly used as a non-destructive method to monitor internal concentration changes of moisture (i.e., moisture content) and other chemical compounds in porous building materials. The technique provides direct measurements of moisture content changes through analysis with a composite model consisting of a dry porous material and a thickness of water equivalent to the moisture content of the material. The current formulation of this composite model relies on certain assumptions, including a monochromatic X-ray photon beam source (i.e., X-ray photons of a single, consistent energy) and that interactions between the X-ray photons and the materials (water and porous material) are independent. However, X-ray sources typically used by researchers in this field of study produce X-ray photon beams over a spectrum of energy levels, or polychromatic X-ray photons. Implications of this inconsistency are introduced and discussed. This paper presents both an overview of fundamental descriptions of the X-ray attenuation measurement technique and results from a parametric experimental study of various porous construction materials, including calcium silicate board, aerated autoclaved concrete, clay brick, cementitious materials, and wood. Results from the parametric investigation indicate the attenuation coefficient of water is dependent on the type and thickness of the porous material.

High Intensity Drying in Porous Materials

High intensity drying is used to characterize those situations for which the drying medium is sufficiently above the saturation temperature of water to preclude the existence of a two-phase zone. In the present work, three models are applied to high intensity drying of porous materials. The three models are: (1) a traditional one-equation model that assumes local thermal equilibrium (LTE); (2) a two-equation model that utilizes lumped capacitance assumption to predict the heat transfer to the solid phase; and (3) a two-equation model that utilizes a more precise quasi-analytical approach to more accurately characterize the conduction in the solid phase. In addition, the relationship between pressure and the drying conditions and material properties is examined since elevated pressure that can occur during high intensity drying is potentially destructive. An implicit finite difference scheme is utilized to determine the drying rate in a porous medium saturated with water and undergoing the phase change process. The case for low local Reynolds number is considered, hence Nusselt number is assumed constant. Results illustrate that the one-equation model does not yield accurate results when the thermophysical properties characterized by the volume weighted ratio of thermal diffusivities, C > 10 (within 5% error). Hence, a two-equation model is suggested. In addition, consistent with the established “rule of thumb,” for Biot number, Biv < 0.1, the traditional two-equation model which makes the lumped capacitance assumption for the solid phase compares well with a two-equation model that more accurately predicts the time dependent diffusion in the solid phase using Duhamel’s theorem. The peak pressures observed during drying for a range of Darcy number and surface heat flux are presented.

A Model for Drying of Porous Materials: From Generality to Specific Applications

Mathematical modeling has been the primary approach for a detailed analysis of the porous material drying process. A number of mathematical models were developed over the past few decades since Luikov's system and Whitaker's theory. The present article offers a brief review of how the mathematical model for various drying purpose evolves through analyzing and summarizing the modeling works carried out in the authors' lab. A general mathematical model is presented and discussed for drying of porous materials based on analysis of the coupled heat and mass transport phenomena. Understanding of the drying behavior is presented with specific applications of the model. The findings on low-intensity convective drying, fixed bed drying, fluidized bed drying of porous particles, as well as freeze-drying of various high-value materials with (or without) microwave heating are examined and discussed.

3-D IMAGING, ANALYSIS AND MODELLING OF POROUS CEREAL PRODUCTS USING X-RAY MICROTOMOGRAPHY

Efficient design of multi-component food products containing dry and wet components such as biscuits with a moist fruit filling, is of growing interests for food industry. Technology is needed to prevent or reduce water migration from the moist filling to the dry porous cereal material. This can be done by using moisture barrier systems. Knowledge of the microstructure and its relation to water mobility is necessary to develop stable products. This paper describes a study that uses X-ray microtomography (μCT) for the characterisation and visualisation of the 3-D structure of crackers with different porosity, coated biscuit shells and soup inclusions. μCT was used for imaging the inner cellular structure of the cereal matrix or to analyse the integrity of moisture barriers applied on the cereal product. 3-D image analysis methods were developed to obtain quantitative information about the cellular matrix which can be used as input for simulation models for moisture migration. The developed 3-D image analysis method maps the open cellular structure onto a network (graph) representation in which the nodes correspond to the pores and the vertices to the pore-topore interconnection. The pores (nodes) have properties such as volume, surface area and location whereas the vertices have properties such as direct (open connection) and indirect (separated by a single lamella) area. To check the segmentation and network description a model for pore to pore resistance was used. The obtained results demonstrate the potential of μCT and 3-D image analysis for extracting structural information which can be used in models for the moisture penetration in a cellular bakery product.

Influence of lignin on cellulose-NaOH-water mixtures properties and on Aerocellulose morphology

Microcrystalline cellulose and organosolv lignin, both dissolved in 8%NaOH-water, were mixed with the objective to study the influence of lignin on the properties of cellulose solutions and on the morphology of dry porous materials. Mixture viscosity and gelation were investigated. Cellulose-lignin gels were regenerated in aqueous acid baths and dried under supercritical CO2 to obtain Aerocellulose, an aerogel-like material. The presence of lignin in the mixture speeded up gelation. During regeneration part of lignin was washed out. This created large pores and channels in the dry materials. The overall results obtained showed that cellulose and lignin are not compatible in the solvent used.

Fractal diffusion of VOCs in dry porous building materials

For the purpose of clarifying the influence of microscopic structural characteristics on the diffusive transport of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in building materials, many researchers have proposed different models to predict the diffusion process based on the micro-structure analysis. In this study a fractal model was developed and analyzed to investigate the mass transfer characteristics of VOCs’ diffusive transport in dry porous building materials. The classical Fick’s diffusion law was extended to a fractal diffusion model. Using the method of separation of variables, the theoretical solution to a fractal diffusion model of VOCs in a porous structure was obtained. Combined with microscopic pore structure characteristics, the surface fractal dimensions of medium density fiberboards (MDFs) used for building decoration were evaluated by using the experimental results of mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). The diffusion process of VOCs in dry porous building materials was simulated by using different surface fractal dimensions and fracton spectral dimensions. Simulated results showed that the surface fractal dimensions and fracton spectral dimensions exhibit different effects on the migration process of VOCs in dry porous building materials. Both the surface fractal dimensions and fracton spectral dimensions reflect the influence of fractal structures on diffusive transport of VOCs. Combining the surface fractal dimensions with fracton spectral dimensions provides a novel interpretation for the diffusion process of VOCs in dry porous building materials.

Coupled heat and formaldehyde migration in dry porous building materials

Due to a lack of accurate description of the coupled heat and formaldehyde migration in dry porous building materials, the characteristics of the heat and mass transfer have not been fully revealed. An improved model of coupled heat and formaldehyde migration is developed and analyzed to investigate the transport features in dry porous building materials. Based on the theory of non-equilibrium thermodynamics and molecular kinetics, the mechanisms of the heat and formaldehyde migration process in dry porous building materials are discussed. The effect of temperature on the transfer coefficients, such as the infiltration coefficient, migration coefficient, apparent thermal conductivity and thermal infiltration coefficient is also presented. The coupled heat and formaldehyde migration process in an ordinary particle board is simulated using a finite difference method. The simulated results indicate that the effect of temperature on the formaldehyde migration in dry porous building materials is obvious. In contrast to the formaldehyde diffusion process, the heat transfer process in the particle board approaches to a steady state more quickly. The formaldehyde emission levels from the particle board in the early stage increase with the increasing temperature gradient, while the formaldehyde concentration remained in the particle board decreases with the increasing temperature gradient. The peak concentration in the chamber increases with the increase of the initial formaldehyde concentration. The reasonability of the present model is verified by the similarity between the numerical results and the experimental data available in the literatures.

Flexibly driving micro flow in a Lab-on-Chip system via dry porous structure

This paper is dedicated to present a low cost way for flexibly driving micro flow in a Lab-on-Chip system through utilizing the wetting mechanism. The unique merit of the method lies in its intentional employment of the wettability between liquid and the dry porous structure. The device thus fabricated only constitutes with a piece of dry porous material and a micro tube filled with liquid. When starting driving, connecting the objective liquid to the micro tube with pre-filled liquid at the entrance; then attaching the dry material to the exit end of the micro tube. Due to wettability between the pre-filled liquid and the dry material, the volume of the pre-filled liquid would decrease which subsequently induce a pressure reduction in the micro tube. As a result, the objective liquid will be jammed into the micro tube by the atmospheric pressure. With this working principle, the driving device is provided with several advantages such as being simple, cheap, safe, and clean; it also owns a wide range of applications in micro fluidics analysis. Theoretical interpretation and demonstration experiments were performed to evaluate the working performances of the driving device. Several factors liable to affect the running state of the driving device have been proposed and evaluated. It has been proved that this driving device is highly feasible and can be adopted as a micro pump for disposable Lab-on-Chip.

On a relationship proposed for thin layer drying of porous materials

On a relationship proposed for thin layer drying of porous materials

Mass transfer in the process of drying of porous materials

The mass transfer in the process of drying of deformable porous bodies was theoretically investigated and the corresponding mass-transfer equation was analytically solved. On the basis of experimental data on the drying of porous materials, the ill-posed inverse problem on determination of the region of regular change in the effective diffusion coefficient and in the porosity of a porous-material layer with time was solved.

Effect of Humidity on Drying of Porous Materials in Fluidized Bed under Reduced Pressure

For fluidized bed drying under a reduced pressure, the effect of the humidity of the drying gas on the drying characteristics of porous materials immersed in the bed was examined experimentally and theoretically. The temperature at the sample center increased with the humidity at relatively high pressures in the drying chamber (101.3 and 50 kPa), and the degree of the increment in the temperature with the humidity increased with the chamber pressure. The effect of the humidity on the temperature at the sample center and the drying time was insignificant at a relatively low chamber pressure (20 kPa).

The Role of Processing Parameters on Energy Efficiency during Microwave Convective Drying of Porous Materials

A small-scale microwave convective dryer was built to study the effects of microwave power level, air temperature, and air velocity on drying kinetics, temperature development, and specific energy consumption (MJ/kg evaporated water) using statistical designs. Increased microwave power had a large significant effect on moisture loss and temperature development and it reduced specific energy consumption. Increased air temperature and air velocity increased specific energy consumption, as their effect on drying kinetics was smaller in the system used. Low air temperature slowed the drying process, without affecting the relationship between average sample temperature and average moisture content during drying.

Performance of the theta probe ML2 in the presence of nonuniform soil water profiles

An attempt is made to investigate the soil permittivity regime which is predicted by ML2 theta probe in cases where a nonuniform soil moisture profile prevails. Our investigation was performed in laboratory columns, under temperature-controlled conditions for a number of different porous media. Five distinct cases, where the moisture regime could be established in a predesigned manner were tested. These are: (a) Air over a water or ethanol layer of changing thickness. (b) Air over a saturated porous material of changing thickness and the same in the reverse order. (c) Dry porous material over the same but saturated porous material of changing thickness and vice versa. (d) Gradual wetting from the top surface of initially dry soils. (e) Initially saturated vertical soil profiles, left to gradually dry by evaporation from both open surfaces (top and bottom). From our experimental investigations it is shown that the bulk dielectric constant predicted by the ML2 probe in nonuniformly wet profiles irrespective of their layer thickness is closely described by the arithmetic averaging scheme. This fact makes the water content predictions from the manufacturer calibration equations for these cases, seriously overestimated. A comparison of the actual water contents with those predicted with the calibration equations of Robinson et al. [Robinson, D.A., Jones, S.B., Blonquist, J.M., Friedman, S.P., 2005. A physical derived water content/permittivity calibration model for coarse–textured layered soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 69 (5), 1372–1377] gives very satisfactory results.

Experimental system to evaluate the effective diffusion coefficient of radon

The effective diffusion coefficient of radon is a very important factor in estimating the rate of radon exhalation from the ground surface. In this study, we developed an experimental system that overcomes technical problems in previous studies to accurately evaluate the effective diffusion coefficient. The radon source used for this system was the National Institute of Radiological Sciences radon chamber. This chamber is a calibrated international standard facility that can produce stable radon concentrations for long periods of time. Our tests showed that leakage of radon from the system was negligible. After the leakage test, we evaluated the effective diffusion coefficient in free-space and in dry porous materials at porosities of 35% and 45%. To ensure that the porous material in the column was as homogeneous as possible, we filled the column with an artificial soil with controlled grain size and grain composition. The measured values and theoretical calculations agreed well, which indicate that the proposed system can be used to accurately and quickly evaluate the effective diffusion coefficient.

Combined heat and mass transfer for drying ceramic (shell) body

In the present work, a two-dimensional numerical model of heat and mass transfer for the convective drying of ceramic porous system was developed. The governing system of fully coupled non-linear partial differential equations describing the process was derived from a mechanistic approach. A formulation including hygrothermal and moisture transport in soil was adopted as the basis for further development in this work. The calculation results for drying of a ceramic brick showed that the model presented is in good agreement with other studies that have been reported previously in the drying of porous material. Further investigation on the shell drying agrees well with the most drying mechanism of ceramic porous body. The influence of material parameter on the drying profile is taken into consideration by carrying out some investigation on the material sensitivity study.

Modeling at Pore-Scale Isothermal Drying of Porous Materials: Liquid and Vapor Diffusivity

Numerical simulations of isothermal drying of non-hygroscopic liquid-wet rigid porous media are performed. Two- and three-dimensional pore networks represent pore spaces. Two types of mechanisms are considered: evaporation and hydraulic flow. The drying is considered to be a modified form of invasion percolation. Liquid in pore corners allows for a hydraulic connection throughout the network at all times. As drying progresses, liquid is replaced by vapor by two fundamental mechanisms: evaporation and pressure gradient–driven liquid flow. Using a Monte Carlo simulation, evaporation and drainage times are computed. The controlling mechanism is indicated by the shorter calculated time. Initially, the drying is governed by liquid flow, then by a combination of liquid flow and evaporation and finally by local evaporation. Reported here are the distributions of liquid and vapor with drying time, capillary pressure curves, liquid film saturation curves, and liquid diffusivity and vapor diffusivity as a function of liquid saturation.

E155 高湿度気流中におけるエタノール水溶液を含む多孔材料の乾燥(界面・相変化・熱物性とその応用3)

Drying of porous material containing a low boiling point solvent in high humidity air was investigated. Glass beads (mean diameter 50μm) packed beds which contained ethanol or water were used as model material. Mass and surface temperature of the material was measured during drying. In case of material containing ethanol, determinable mass increase was not measured even when the material temperature was lower than the steam dew point temperature of drying media at the early stage. The reason is that the ethanol evaporation from the material occurred simultaneously with steam condensation from the drying media onto the material surface.

Pore-network study of the characteristic periods in the drying of porous materials

We study the periods that develop in the drying of capillary porous media, particularly the constant rate (CRP) and the falling rate (FRP) periods. Drying is simulated with a 3-D pore-network model that accounts for the effect of capillarity and buoyancy at the liquid–gas interface and for diffusion through the porous material and through a boundary layer over the external surface of the material. We focus on the stabilizing or destabilizing effects of gravity on the shape of the drying curve and the relative extent of the various drying periods. The extents of CRP and FRP are directly associated with various transition points of the percolation theory, such as the breakthrough point and the main liquid cluster disconnection point. Our study demonstrates that when an external diffusive layer is present, the constant rate period is longer.

DRYING BEHAVIOR AND PERMEABILITY OF Eucalyptus grandis LUMBER

Although the increasing economic importance of Eucalyptus lumber to furniture and other value added products manufacturing, its industrial use is still small. One of the main reasons is the difficulty to dry the lumber and related loses of row material. There is a general recommendation in literature to use a low drying rate in initial stages of the process, and changing to a more aggressive drying after removal of liquid water from the lumber. According classical theory about drying of porous material, this point should coincide with the predominance of diffusion phenomena in the moisture movement; which could be determined through the characteristic drying curve of the material. With the objective to get better knowledge about the drying of Eucalyptus grandis lumber, its characteristic drying curve was determined, and the results proved that Eucalyptus grandis lumber is not permeable to liquid flow. Based on its characteristic drying curve, it is possible to suggest the change of drying conditions when lumber moisture content, dry basis, is between 35% and 40%, then starting a more aggressive drying.