Dry Farming Conditions Research Articles

Soil Erosion Mitigation by Perennial Species Under Mediterranean Environment

Soils of the Mediterranean area are subjected to erosion due to the cropping systems and crop managements adopted. This causes a loss of crop productivity that could be initially replaced with an increase of fertilizers, but in the end leads to land abandonment. The areas subjected to soil erosion in the Mediterranean area cover 1,309,000 km2, equal to 15 % of the land of Mediterranean countries. In dry farming condition, the farmer’s choices are often constrained by the prevailing climatic conditions. Rainfall amount and distribution represent the main constraints that lead farmers to choose annual autumn-winter crops. In this environment, the growing cycle of autumn-winter crops, such as durum wheat, determines a lack of soil covering during the first rains that occur in early autumn and winter. Soil losses by erosion also determine nutrient losses and affect soil organic matter content. All these aspects are evaluated by ongoing research started in 1996 in an area of the internal hills of Sicily (Italy) in the center of the Mediterranean basin. In this experimental site, on a 27 % slope, the effect of different cropping systems to determine surface runoff and soil losses was evaluated. In each plot, (40 × 8) m, a series of devices were installed in order to determine the amount of runoff and sediment: four covered trap channels were installed at the bottom of each plot, each channel drained into pipes which emptied into a tank to collect surface runoff and soil losses. After each erosive rainfall, the amount of water, of sediments, and the nitrate-nitrogen were measured. Soil organic matter was determined every fall at 0–30 and 31–60 cm depth. The highest annual values of soil losses were observed in the annual tilled crops, such as the typical Mediterranean crop rotation “durum wheat-durum wheat-fallow” (11.2 t ha−1 year−1). Very low soil losses were observed in the plots managed with perennial crops, alfalfa (0.34 t ha−1 year−1), Italian ryegrass in pure stand and in mixtures with subterranean clover (3.2 t ha−1 year−1), and subterranean clover (1.7 t ha−1 year−1). The perennial giant miscanthus and moon trefoil reduced soil losses to 0.1 t ha−1 year−1. The benefit of the cultivation of perennial crops instead of tilled crops was also highlighted in relation to organic matter content. The rotation “giant miscanthus (from 1997 to 2001)-moon trefoil (from 2002 to 2015)” made it possible to increase soil organic matter from 1.03 to 2.51 % in the average of the first 60 cm soil depth.

The effect of drought stress in dry farming conditions on grain yield and some morphologic traits in various bread wheat genotypes

In order to assess and classify the morphological traits of bread wheat in drought stress conditions (dry farming), 18 bread wheat cultivars were studied. This experiment was performed in the form of a randomized complete blocks design (RCBD) in Gachsaran Dryland Agricultural Research Station during the agricultural years of 20102011. Variance of genotypes was significant for the traits, so there was a high genetic diversity among the traits. The studied traits included; agronomic score, spikelets per spike, leaf length, spike weight, grain length, thousand kernel weight (TKW) and grain yield. The results obtained showed that the total weight of the spike had the highest correlation with grain yield in dry farming conditions. Based on the results obtained of tests of resistance to dry stress genotypes of 16, 8 and 6 are the most resistant genotypes to drought stress. Generally, one can conclude that the traits of agronomic score and Spikelets per spike are main traits for recognizing superior genotypes.

Phenolic compounds and vitamins in wild and cultivated apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) fruits grown in irrigated and dry farming conditions

BackgroundTurkey is the main apricot producer in the world and apricots have been produced under both dry and irrigated conditions in the country. In this study, phenolic compounds and vitamins in fruits of one wild (Zerdali) and three main apricot cultivars (‘Cataloglu’, ‘Hacihaliloglu’ and ‘Kabaasi’) grown in both dry and irrigated conditions in Malatya provinces in Turkey were investigated.ResultsThe findings indicated that higher content of phenolic compounds and vitamins was found in apricot fruits grown in irrigated conditions. Among the cultivars, ‘Cataloglu’ had the highest rutin contents both in irrigated and dry farming conditions as 2855 μg in irrigated and 6952 μg per 100 g dried weight base in dry conditions and the highest chlorogenic acid content in irrigated and dry farming conditions were measured in fruits of ‘Hacıhaliloglu’ cultivar as 7542 μg and 15251 μg per 100 g dried weight base. Vitamin C contents in homogenates of fruit flesh and skin was found to be higher than β-caroten, retinol, vitamin E and lycopen contents in apricot fruits both in irrigated and dry farming conditions.ConclusionThe results suggested that apricot fruits grown in both dry and irrigated conditions had high health benefits phytochemicals and phytochemical content varied among cultivars and irrigation conditions as well. However, more detailed biological and pharmacological studies are needed for the demonstration and clarification of health benefits of apricot fruits.

Effects of Super Absorbent Resin on Leaf Water Use Efficiency and Yield in Dry-land Wheat

The effect of Super Absorbent Resin (SAR) on soil characteristics and production of wheat was conducted to study in a potted cultivated experiment, with Jimai 22 as experimental material and adopted single factor block design under the dry farming condition. The results show that: the application of SAR in dry-land wheat, increases degree of soil Relative water content among the whole growth period, especially in tiller stage, heading stage, grain-filling stage, but in Jointing stage and mature stage (require less water), it effected less obviously. Within a certain range, SAR can increase leaf water use efficiency in dry-land wheat and the more SAR, the bigger soil water content and leaf water use efficiency. But litter effect on Wheat Soil hydrogen ion concentration (pH). The SAR has positive impact on wheat yield component factors and yield.

10.5937/ratpov50-4635 = Production of yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea L.) nursery plants suitable for transplanting and cultivation under dry farming conditions in mountain region of Serbia

This paper deals with development of yellow gentian nursery plants in the open winter beds established in the mountainous region of Serbia at 1000 m a.s.l. Number, weight and size of one-, two- and three-year-old nursery plants were measured in succession for two years. The one-year-old nursery plants had an average 1.5 g fresh weight and 0.4 g dry weight, while the average length and width of the thickened root parts were 6.0 cm and 0.4 cm, respectively. The average fresh and dry root weights of the two-year-old nursery plants were 4.9 g and 1.4 g, respectively, with the length and width of the thickened root part 10.8 cm and 1.2 cm, respectively. The average root weights of the three-year-old plantlets were 15.6 g (fresh weight) and 4.7 g (dry weight), but they were too branchy and difficult for transplanting into the field. The average number of yellow gentian nursery plants per m2 of the open winter bed, following the first, second and third growing year were 714, 243 and 95, respectively. Two-year-old nursery plants proved to be the most suitable for establishing large-scale plantations for the production of yellow gentian root under dry farming conditions in the mountains of Serbia.

Effects of organic manures and non-chemical weed control on wheat. II. Grain quality

Deficit plant nutrients, especially nitrogen, and weed competition are the most critical problems in organic farming. This research was carried out on research plots of the Agricultural Research and Extension Center of Atatürk University Agricultural Faculty during the cropping seasons of 2006-07, 2007-08, and 2008-09 under dry farming conditions. A factorial experimental design with 4 replications was used to set up the experimental plots. The factors were 2 wheat cultivars (Kırik and Doğu-88), 3 weed control practices (weedy control, hand weeding, dense sowing), and 7 fertilizer sources [control, standard inorganic (NP), Bio-Organic (Bio), Bio-SR Organic (Bio SR), Leonardite, Organic fertilizer (OF), and cattle manure (CM)]. Hectoliter weight, crude protein ratio, Zeleny sedimentation value, wet gluten content, number of fall (enzyme activity), and crude ash ratio were investigated as the quality parameters for bread-wheat cultivars. Differences between Doğu-88 and Kırik were significant with regard to the investigated parameters except for hectoliter weight. Kırik was superior in terms of quality parameters. Weed control practices significantly affected the investigated parameters. The highest Zeleny sedimentation value and wet gluten content were obtained from hand weeding, while the highest crude protein ratio was obtained from weedy control. The manure sources affected the investigated parameters significantly. The highest values were obtained from NP fertilizer source. Organic manure sources increased the quality parameter compared to the control and the highest quality values were obtained from CM treatment. It was concluded that local cultivar Kırik should be preferred to modern cultivar Doğu 88 for high grain quality in organic wheat farming. CM should be applied as an organic fertilizer due to high quality values in organic wheat farming under the dry farming conditions of Erzurum Province in Turkey.

Significance of β-glucan in barley grain during breeding for brewing and nutritional properties

A method is given for determining the content of β-glucan in grain of barley varieties, and polymorphism of the species in this trait, including collection and breeding accessions, is shown. Within the breeding nurseries of Kazakhstan, the β-glucan content varies from 2.6 to 6.2% in spring and from 2.2 to 5.7% in winter barley grain, increasing under dry-farming conditions. For brewing purposes, accessions with a value of this index lower than 4%, some of which displayed relative stability across reseedings, are singled out. The need for purposeful breeding for the given trait, for which it is necessary to introduce it into the selection scheme, and use of identification methods are substantiated.

Effect of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers on yield of Thymus daenensis in dry condition

Thymus daenensis is an aromatic medicinal plant endemic to Iran. Recent studies have shown that Thymus species have strong antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiparasitic, spasmolytic and antioxidant activities. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of two factors of nitrogen and phosphorus on growth, yield, quality and quantity of effective material of T. daenensis under dry farming condition. Two randomized block experiment design were established with three and four treatments and three replicates for nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, respectively. The designed treatments for phosphorus consisted of 0, 65 and 130 kg/ha triple superphosphate and designed treatments for nitrogen consisted of 0, 50, 100 and 150 kg/ha Urea. In this study, some variables such as wet and dry weight, number of flower and tiller per plant, diameter of canopy, yield and percentage of the essence and plant height was measured. The results indicated that third and fourth treatments of urea had similar effect on Thymus and in the similar condition, the third treatment is preferred. Also, third treatment of triple super phosphate was the best treatment. Finally, according to interaction effect of them, treatment of P 3 N 3 (100 kg/ha urea and 130kg/ha triple super phosphate) was the best treatment and it was most effective for yield of Thymus under dry farming condition.

Effect of Different Fertilizing Systems on Seed Yield and Phosphorus Uptake in Annual Medics under Dryland Farming Conditions

The effect of different fertilizing systems on the seed yield and phosphorus uptake in annual medic (Medicago scutellata cv. Robinson) was examined at two locations under dry farming conditions in Kermanshah province, Iran, in 2009. Experiments were conducted based on a randomized complete block design with three replications; the treatments consisted of control (no fertilizer), chemical fertilizer, biological fertilizer and different combinations of chemical and biological fertilizing systems. The results showed that application of different fertilizing systems had a highly significant effect on the number of pods per plant. The highest values were obtained in the treatment using the urea chemical fertilizer + phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria + mycorrhiza. The highest soil seed bank was recorded in the nitrogen-fixing bacteria + phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria treatment; it increased the number of seeds by approximately 50 percent compared to the control (only 134 pod containing seeds). The highest pod yield was obtained after applying nitrogen-fixing bacteria + mycorrhiza (445 kg/ha), the lowest yield in the control treatment (266 kg/ha). In general, under the conditions of this experiment, the seed yield of annual medic var. Robinson receiving nitrogen-fixing + phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria out-yielded other fertilizing treatments. This indicates a synergistic interaction between these groups of bacteria that increases seed yield, the soil seed bank as well as the seed phosphorus uptake of this plant species under dry farming conditions.

INFLUENCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEDULING ON FRUIT QUALITY OF YOUNG POTTED 'MANZANILLA DE SEVILLA' OLIVE TREES

INFLUENCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEDULING ON FRUIT QUALITY OF YOUNG POTTED 'MANZANILLA DE SEVILLA' OLIVE TREES

The effects of different soil tillage methods on soil water dynamic

Water is an important factor effecting plant growth especially under dry farmingconditions. Therefore, different factors, such as mulch, organic matter, polymer and different soil tillage application, to decrease the water loss from soil was extensively studied. Among these practices, methods of soil tillage is important, because its effects may vary from region to region. In this study, different methods of soil tillage; Chisel ploughing (C), chisel ploughing combined with combine harrowing (CK) and chisel ploughing combined with disc harrowing (CD) in a 3 year crop rotation (sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)-barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)-Hungarian vetch (Vicia pannonica Crantz)+triticale) were studied in 2005 - 2006 season under dry conditions in loamy soil. Soil moisture dynamics were measured when Hungarian vetch+triticale was cultivated. When moisture loss is high, volumetric soil moisture was measured at different depths (10, 20, 30, 40, 60 and 100 cm) at four day intervals to measure soil moisture during the month of May in 2005 - 2006 season. Although there were no statistical differences among soil tillage methods, moisture values found at different depths in the soil varied depending on the measurement period (P < 0.01). In addition, different soil tillage methods had different effects on soil moisture content during the measurement period (P < 0.01). The compaction on top of the soil caused by CD method had a positive effect on moisture content and yield; however, the CK method led to an increase in soil moisture loss. Therefore the effects of secondary cultivation machines may vary to a great extent. Key words: Chisel plowing, soil tillage, soil moisture.

10.1007/s11475-008-3010-1

Variations in the salinity of virgin soils of solonetzic soil complexes at the Dzhanybek Research Station are characterized on the basis of field materials obtained by the author in 2002–2004. The soil salinity is characterized with respect to the depth of the upper boundary of salt-bearing horizons, the total amount of salts, the content of toxic salts, and the chemical composition of salts. Changes in the soil salinity under dry farming conditions are estimated for the following soil management practices: (1) agroforest amelioration with additional moistening of virgin soils owing to snow retention by the adjacent shelterbelts and forest plantations, (2) intense grazing, (3) soil fallowing after normal tillage to a depth of 20–25 cm, and (4) soil fallowing after deep tillage to a depth of 40–50 cm. It is shown that normal tillage and considerable grazing pressure do not affect the salinity of the studied soils. No definite effect of the shelterbelts on the salt status of the adjacent virgin soils of the solonetzic complex has been revealed. Deep soil tillage strongly affects the salt status of solonetzes: the content of toxic salts in the upper meter considerably decreases. Virgin solonetzes are usually moderately or strongly saline soils, whereas deeply tilled solonetzes are slightly or moderately saline soils.

Utilization Pattern of Power sources on Productivity of Groundnut and Cotton Dryland Production Systems

A field study was conducted in groundnut and cotton production systems under dry farming conditions to assess the utilization of different power sources and energy use pattern. Ninety farms were studied using a structured questionnaire. The mechanization in the groundnut system in Anantapur was observed to be higher than the other dry farming production systems. The mean annual working hour of tractors in groundnut and cotton production system was 1,015 and 1,080 hours, respectively. The tractors owned were used for custom hiring for 58 and 69 % of annual usage in groundnut and cotton based production systems, respectively. The total energy used in rain fed groundnut production system was in the range of 4,299 to 9,572 MJ/ha and rain fed cotton system was 7,240 to 10,724 MJ/ha. Small and marginal resource poor farmers were unable to make proper investment to increase the crop productivity. Interventions like custom hiring centres managed by local community and cooperative farming at cluster level could ensure increased use of farm machinery, reducing farm drudgery.

Modern state of soil salinity in solonetzic soil complexes at the Dzhanybek Research Station in the North Caspian Region

Variations in the salinity of virgin soils of solonetzic soil complexes at the Dzhanybek Research Station are characterized on the basis of field materials obtained by the author in 2002–2004. The soil salinity is characterized with respect to the depth of the upper boundary of salt-bearing horizons, the total amount of salts, the content of toxic salts, and the chemical composition of salts. Changes in the soil salinity under dry farming conditions are estimated for the following soil management practices: (1) agroforest amelioration with additional moistening of virgin soils owing to snow retention by the adjacent shelterbelts and forest plantations, (2) intense grazing, (3) soil fallowing after normal tillage to a depth of 20–25 cm, and (4) soil fallowing after deep tillage to a depth of 40–50 cm. It is shown that normal tillage and considerable grazing pressure do not affect the salinity of the studied soils. No definite effect of the shelterbelts on the salt status of the adjacent virgin soils of the solonetzic complex has been revealed. Deep soil tillage strongly affects the salt status of solonetzes: the content of toxic salts in the upper meter considerably decreases. Virgin solonetzes are usually moderately or strongly saline soils, whereas deeply tilled solonetzes are slightly or moderately saline soils.

ADAPTATION OF ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL LEGUMES AND GRASSES UTILISED AS COVER CROPS IN AN OLIVE GROVE AND A VINEYARD IN SOUTHERN ITALY

ISHS XXVII International Horticultural Congress - IHC2006: International Symposium on Sustainability through Integrated and Organic Horticulture ADAPTATION OF ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL LEGUMES AND GRASSES UTILISED AS COVER CROPS IN AN OLIVE GROVE AND A VINEYARD IN SOUTHERN ITALY

Effect of nitrogen and potassium fertilisation on vegetative growth and flowering of mature carob trees (Ceratonia siliqua): variations in leaf area index and water use indices

This work aimed to assess how potassium (K) and nitrogen (N) fertilisation may affect the use of precipitation in terms of vegetative and flowering response of 15-year-old carob trees during a 3-year experiment. A��field trial was conducted in 1997, 1998 and 1999 in Algarve (Southern Portugal) in a calcareous soil. Four fertilisation treatments were tested: no fertiliser (control); 0.8 kg N/tree (N treatment); 1 kg K2O/tree (K treatment) and 0.8 kg N/tree plus 1 kg K2O/tree (NK treatment). No irrigation was applied during the experimental period. Branch length increments were measured every month throughout the growing season and inflorescence number was registered once per year. There was a strong seasonal effect on vegetative growth, since low levels of precipitation (115 mm) during October 1998–March 1999 suppressed the increment in branch length. N supplied to the trees (N and NK treatments) tended to increase water use indices in terms of vegetative growth. No response to K alone was observed in trees fertilised only with K. The number of inflorescences increased throughout the experimental period, particularly for N and NK treatments, and a reduction of the precipitation amount during April, May and June, may also enhance flowering. This knowledge could be important when making decisions concerning fertilisation under dry conditions. The results reported here indicate that tree growth (expressed as the branch growth) and flower production under dry-farming conditions, may be achieved by applying 0.8 kg of N (as ammonium nitrate)�per tree during the growing season. However, N uptake and use depends on soil water availability.

Use of Volcanic Mulch to Rehabilitate Saline‐Sodic Soils

Natural soil salinization and sodication processes that restrict or prevent crop growth are commonplace in arid regions. In saline‐sodic soils of arid parts of the Canarian archipelago, where annual rainfall is &lt;150 mm, a traditional agriculture system has been developed using basaltic tephra mulch. This system has enabled dry crop farming to take place even under the most adverse of natural conditions. The present work compares the salinity‐sodicity in the cultivated layer of soils that were covered with 10 to 15 cm of tephra mulch as recently as 20 yr ago with that of adjacent unmulched soils. These soils have never been irrigated. Results show significant differences in electrical conductivity (EC) and exchangeable Na percentage (ESP). The natural, unmulched soils are extremely saline‐sodic (ECse 43 dSm−1, ESP 44), whereas the mulched soils are neither saline nor sodic (ECse 1.5 dSm−1, ESP 9). The reduction in salinity and sodicity in the mulched soils was related to the change in soil moisture regime caused by the mulch covering, which increases infiltration and reduces evaporation and upward movement of Na+ and other salts. Probably, additional water from dew could also contribute. The greater dilution of soil solution through increased soil water content, increased Na+ leaching and the dissolution of calcium salts may account for the desalinization and desodication. These results were confirmed through monitoring of a soil from the moment it was originally covered with tephra. They also revealed salt leaching process is a short‐term. Tephra mulching can, therefore, be a highly efficient technique for the recovery of saline‐sodic soils under dry farming conditions.

Heat-pulse measurements of sap flow in olives for automating irrigation: tests, root flow and diagnostics of water stress

The compensation heat-pulse method for measuring sap flow is tested here in olive trees ( Olea europaea L.). We describe a rigorous three-way examination of the robustness of the technique for this species, and examine the potential of the technique for an automatic control of the irrigation system. Two tests were carried out using heat-pulse gear inserted into the stem of 12-year-old ‘Manzanilla’ olive trees. One test used forced-flow through a stem section, and the other involved measured water uptake by an excised tree. The measured sap flow in these two tests was in agreement with calculations from heat-pulse velocities when using a standard ‘wound correction’ to account for the presence of the probes and the disruption to the sap flow. Thus, this technique for monitoring transpiration can, we feel, be used with confidence in olives. The third experiment was carried out in the field, where we analysed sap flow data from two 29-year-old olive trees — one tree was under regular drip irrigation and the other was from dry-farming conditions. We use measurements of sap flow in the trunk to examine the hydraulic functioning of the tree, and to explore some diagnostics of water stress. Our heat-pulse measurements in the irrigated olive tree exhibited a profile of sap flow that was weighted towards the outer xylem of the tree trunk while the water-stressed trees in the field showed a profile of sap flow weighted towards the centre of the trunk. The loss of hydraulic functioning in the outermost section of the vascular system, as a result of water stress, we consider to be due both to stomatal control and to embolisms in the xylem vessels. The fourth experiment was also carried out in the field, in which sap flow measurements were made at three locations in the trunk as well as in two roots of another 29-year-old olive tree. The soil explored by each root, on opposite sides of the trunk, was differentially wetted by separate irrigation of each side. Our data showed that the surface roots were able to absorb water immediately after wetting, despite a reasonably prolonged period of moderate drought. Root activity quickly shifted to the regions where the soil had been wetted. A root in dry soil exhibited no flow at night, whereas sap flows of about 0.02 l h −1 were measured around midnight in the root drawing water from the wetter soil. Our observations suggest that the hydraulic behaviour of the trunk and surface roots might be used as a diagnostic of the onset, or severity, of water stress. Here there is not the imperative to replicate, for the prime goal is not transpiration estimation. Rather interpretation of the diurnal dynamics is used to infer the onset, or severity of water stress. The compensation heat-pulse seems a suitable technique for automatically controlling the irrigation system of olives, and probably other trees, based either on the estimation of the short-time dynamics of transpiration, or on changes in the hydraulic behaviour of the trees.

Stomatal control of water use in olive tree leaves

Little is known about the strategies used by olive trees to overcome the long dry periods typical of the areas where they are cropped. This makes it difficult to optimize the water supply in orchards. To study the control of water consumption by olive trees, measurements of leaf water potential (Ψ) and stomatal conductance to H2O (g) were made on 26-year-old t Manzanillo olive trees under three irrigation treatments. The first treatment provided enough water to cover the crop water demand, the next treatment supplied one third of that rate, and the final treatment was no irrigation at all, typical of dry-farming conditions. Under conditions of high vapour pressure deficit of the air (Da), the olive trees prevented excessive water loss by closing their stomata. Leaves of the current year showed better stomatal control than did the 1-year-old leaves. The upper-bound functional relationships between t g and t Da and photon flux density (IP) were obtained by boundary-line analysis, based on a technique of non-linear least squares. Maximum values of t g were observed at relatively low levels of t IP, from about 500 μmol m-2 s-1, and a proportional decrease in t g with increasing t Da was also found, at least for values of up to approximately 3.5 kPa. Higher values of t g were observed in the morning than in the afternoon, for similar levels of t IP and t Da. Unirrigated olive trees recovered quickly after the dry season, showing values of Ψ and t g similar to those of irrigated trees after just two days.

Effects of Different Floor Management Systems on Almond Yield in an Arid Region

Three soil management systems for almond {Amygdalus communis L., Syn. Prunus amygdalus Batsch) orchards were compared under dry farming conditions in Southern Spain: reduced tillage at low depth (T); non-tillage, chemical weeding, bare floor, (NT); and non-tillage in rows with cover crops in middles on 50% of soil surface (C). Reduced tillage (T) yielded more nuts and kernel mass per m3 of top volume than cover crops (C) and non-tillage (NT), due primarily to greater size of the almond fruit. Thus, for 80 nuts/m , the yield increases in T over C and NT were 8% and 12%, respectively. The cracking percentage (percent kernel) was higher with cover crops, and lower in non-tillage areas, varying significantly within years due to different meteorological conditions during fruit growth and maturation periods. Soil surface compaction and the consequent low water infiltration rates may be responsible for the lower yield in non-tillage areas.