Drug-resistant Fungi Research Articles

Flipping and other astonishing transporter dance moves in fungal drug resistance.

In all domains of life, transmembrane proteins from the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family drive the translocation of diverse substances across lipid bilayers. In pathogenic fungi, the ABC transporters of the pleiotropic drug resistance (PDR) subfamily confer antibiotic resistance and so are of interest as therapeutic targets. They also drive the quest for understanding how ABC transporters can generally accommodate such a wide range of substrates. The Pdr5 transporter from baker's yeast is representative of the PDR group and, ever since its discovery more than 30 years ago, has been the subject of extensive functional analyses. A new perspective of these studies has been recently provided in the framework of the first electron cryo-microscopy structures of Pdr5, as well as emergent applications of machine learning in the field. Taken together, the old and the new developments have been used to propose a mechanism for the transport process in PDR proteins. This mechanism involves a "flippase" step that moves the substrates from one leaflet of the bilayer to the other, as a central element of cellular efflux.

Disruption of Iron Homeostasis and Mitochondrial Metabolism Are Promising Targets to Inhibit Candida auris.

ABSTRACTFungal infections are a global threat, but treatments are limited due to a paucity in antifungal drug targets and the emergence of drug-resistant fungi such as Candida auris. Metabolic adaptations enable microbial growth in nutrient-scarce host niches, and they further control immune responses to pathogens, thereby offering opportunities for therapeutic targeting. Because it is a relatively new pathogen, little is known about the metabolic requirements for C. auris growth and its adaptations to counter host defenses. Here, we establish that triggering metabolic dysfunction is a promising strategy against C. auris. Treatment with pyrvinium pamoate (PP) induced metabolic reprogramming and mitochondrial dysfunction evident in disrupted mitochondrial morphology and reduced tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle enzyme activity. PP also induced changes consistent with disrupted iron homeostasis. Nutrient supplementation experiments support the proposition that PP-induced metabolic dysfunction is driven by disrupted iron homeostasis, which compromises carbon and lipid metabolism and mitochondria. PP inhibited C. auris replication in macrophages, which is a relevant host niche for this yeast pathogen. We propose that PP causes a multipronged metabolic hit to C. auris: it restricts the micronutrient iron to potentiate nutritional immunity imposed by immune cells, and it further causes metabolic dysfunction that compromises the utilization of macronutrients, thereby curbing the metabolic plasticity needed for growth in host environments. Our study offers a new avenue for therapeutic development against drug-resistant C. auris, shows how complex metabolic dysfunction can be caused by a single compound triggering antifungal inhibition, and provides insights into the metabolic needs of C. auris in immune cell environments.IMPORTANCE Over the last decade, Candida auris has emerged as a human pathogen around the world causing life-threatening infections with wide-spread antifungal drug resistance, including pandrug resistance in some cases. In this study, we addressed the mechanism of action of the antiparasitic drug pyrvinium pamoate against C. auris and show how metabolism could be inhibited to curb C. auris proliferation. We show that pyrvinium pamoate triggers sweeping metabolic and mitochondrial changes and disrupts iron homeostasis. PP-induced metabolic dysfunction compromises the utilization of both micro- and macronutrients by C. auris and reduces its growth in vitro and in immune phagocytes. Our findings provide insights into the metabolic requirements for C. auris growth and define the mechanisms of action of pyrvinium pamoate against C. auris, demonstrating how this compound works by inhibiting the metabolic flexibility of the pathogen. As such, our study characterizes credible avenues for new antifungal approaches against C. auris.

Heat shock proteins and the calcineurin-crz1 signaling regulate stress responses in fungi.

The heat shock proteins (Hsps) act as a molecular chaperone to stabilize client proteins involved in various cell functions in fungi. Hsps are classified into different families such as HSP90, HSP70, HSP60, HSP40, and small HSPs (sHsps). Hsp90, a well-studied member of the Hsp family proteins, plays a role in growth, cell survival, and pathogenicity in fungi. Hsp70 and sHsps are involved in the development, tolerance to stress conditions, and drug resistance in fungi. Hsp60 is a mitochondrial chaperone, and Hsp40 regulates fungal ATPase machinery. In this review, we describe the cell functions, regulation, and the molecular link of the Hsps with the calcineurin-crz1 calcium signaling pathway for their role in cell survival, growth, virulence, and drug resistance in fungi and related organisms.

Species-Selective Targeting of Fungal Hsp90: Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Novel 4,5-Diarylisoxazole Derivatives for the Combination Treatment of Azole-Resistant Candidiasis.

Invasive fungal infections are emerging as serious infectious diseases worldwide. Because of the development of antifungal drug resistance, the limited efficacy of the existing drugs has led to high mortality in patients. The use of the essential eukaryotic chaperone Hsp90, which plays a multifaceted role in drug resistance across diverse pathogenic fungal species, is considered to be a new strategy to mitigate the resistance and counter the threat posed by drug-resistant fungi. Thus, a series of 4,5-diarylisoxazole analogues as fungal Hsp90 inhibitors were designed and synthesized that had potent synergistic effects with fluconazole in vitro and in vivo. In particular, compound A17 could avoid the potential mammalian toxicity of Hsp90 inhibitors based on key reside differences between humans and fungi. These data support the feasibility of targeting fungal Hsp90 as a promising antifungal strategy and further development of compound A17 as a valuable research probe for the investigation of fungal Hsp90.

Design, synthesis, and evaluation of novel 3-thiophene derivatives as potent fungistatic and fungicidal reagents based on a conformational restriction strategy

Invasive fungal infections (IFIs) are emerging as serious infectious diseases worldwide, and due to the lack of effective antifungal agents and serious drug resistance, the limited efficacy of existing drugs has led to high morbidity and mortality in patients. We optimized the lead compound 7 by conformational restriction strategy to obtain a series of 3-thiophene phenyl compounds, of which compound 21b showed excellent inhibitory activity against pathogenic and drug-resistant fungi. In addition, the preferred compound 21b could prevent the formation of fungal biofilms and displayed satisfactory fungicidal activity. Furthermore, compound 21b was almost non-toxic to mammalian THLE2 and RAW264.7 cells and did not pose a risk of drug-drug interactions. These results strongly suggested that compound 21b is worthy of further study as a potential azole inhibitor.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of novel spiro[pyrrolidine-2,3′-quinolin]-2′-one derivatives as potential chitin synthase inhibitors and antifungal agents

A series of novel spiro-quinolinone derivatives were designed and synthesized and their structures were confirmed by spectroscopic methods. The enzymatic experiments showed that all the seventeen synthesized compounds had inhibition potency against chitin synthase, among them five compounds had excellent inhibition potency that equal to that of polyoxin B. The Kinetic parameters of enzymatic assays indicated that these compounds were non-competitive inhibitors of chitin synthase. The antimicrobial experiments displayed that the synthesized compounds had selectively and broad-spectrum antifungal activity in vitro Among them, two compounds had stronger antifungal activity against C. albicans than that of fluconazole meanwhile five others compounds showed antifungal activity against C. albicans being equal to that of fluconazole. Moreover, there are four or five compounds that possessed antifungal activities against C. neoformans, A. fumigatus and A. flavus as high as fluconazole had, respectively. The sorbitol protection assay and evaluation of antifungal activity against micafungin-resistant strain further verified that these compounds possessed antifungal activity through inhibiting the synthesis of chitin of cell wall. The evaluation of antifungal activity against others drug-resistant fungi variants showed these designed compounds had significant antifungal activity against these tested variants. The combination use experiments exhibited that the synthesized compounds had synergistic effects or additive effects with current used drugs in clinic. These results demonstrated that these synthesized compounds were chitin synthase inhibitors and had selective and broad-spectra antifungal activities.

Impact of host factors on susceptibility to antifungal agents.

An obstacle to drug development, particularly in this era of multiple drug resistance, is the under-appreciation for the role the host environment plays in microbial response to drugs. With the rise in fungal infection and drug resistance, particularly in individuals with co-morbidities, the influence serum and its components have on antimicrobial susceptibility requires assessment. This study examined the impact of physiologically relevant glucose and insulin levels in the presence and absence of 50 % human plasma on MICs for clinical isolates of Candida lusitaniae, Candida parapsilosis, Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Candida glabrata, Candida krusei and Cryptococcus neoformans. The addition of insulin or glucose at physiologic levels in RPMI medium alone altered the MIC in either a positive or negative fashion, depending on the organisms and drug tested, with C. glabrata most significantly altered with a 40, >32- and 46-fold increase in MIC for amphotericin B, itraconazole and miconazole, respectively. The addition of candida-antibody negative plasma also affected MIC, with the addition of glucose and insulin having a tandem effect on MIC. These findings indicate that phenotypic resistance of Candida and Cryptococcus can vary depending on the presence of insulin with glucose and plasma. This modulation of resistance may help explain treatment failures in the diabetic population and facilitate the development of stable drug-resistant strains. Furthermore, these findings indicate the need for a precision approach in the choice of drug treatment and drug development.

Unifying the classification of antimicrobial peptides in the antimicrobial peptide database.

Natural products offer an important avenue to novel therapeutics against drug-resistant bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and cancer. However, there are numerous hurdles and challenges in discovering such molecules, including antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). While a thorough characterization of AMPs is limited by the amount of material, existing technology, and researcher's expertise, peptide classification is complicated by incomplete information as well as different methods proposed for AMPs from bacteria, plants, and animals. This article describes unified classification schemes for natural AMPs on a common platform: the Antimicrobial Peptide Database (APD; https://aps.unmc.edu). The various criteria for these unified classifications include peptide biological source, biosynthesis machinery, biological activity, amino acid sequence, mechanism of action, and three-dimensional structure. To overcome the problem with a limited number of known 3D structures, a universal peptide classification has also been refined and executed in the APD database. This universal method, based on the spatial connection patterns of polypeptide chains, is independent of peptide source, size, activity, 3D structure, or mechanism of action. It facilitates information registration, naming, exchange, decoding, prediction, and design of novel antimicrobial peptides.

Drug resistant parasites and fungi from a one-health perspective: A global concern that needs transdisciplinary stewardship programs

Antimicrobials including antibiotics, antiparasitic, and antifungals, are subjected to resistance. In this context, Public Health Organizations called for a One Health approach because antimicrobials used to treat different infectious diseases in animals and plants may be the same than those used in humans. Whereas mechanisms of resistance transmission from animals or environment to humans should be considered differently if related to prokaryotic or eukaryotic pathogens, their impact can be considered as a whole. In that respect, we discussed the use of anti-parasitic in animals including anticoccidials, anthelmintics, and insecticides-acaricides, and the use of azoles in the environment that may both favor the development of drug resistance in humans. In light of the current situation, there is an urgent need for a transdisciplinary approach through anti-parasitic and antifungal stewardship programs in humans, animals, and environment, especially in the era of COVID-19 pandemic that will probably aggravate antimicrobial resistance.

Heterologous expression and biochemical characterisation of the recombinant β-carbonic anhydrase (MpaCA) from the warm-blooded vertebrate pathogen malassezia pachydermatis

Warm-blooded animals may have Malassezia pachydermatis on healthy skin, but changes in the skin microenvironment or host defences induce this opportunistic commensal to become pathogenic. Malassezia infections in humans and animals are commonly treated with azole antifungals. Fungistatic treatments, together with their long-term use, contribute to the selection and the establishment of drug-resistant fungi. To counteract this rising problem, researchers must find new antifungal drugs and enhance drug resistance management strategies. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, adenylyl cyclase, and bicarbonate have been found to promote fungal virulence, adhesion, hydrolase synthesis, and host cell death. The CO2/HCO3 -/pH-sensing in fungi is triggered by HCO3 - produced by metalloenzymes carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1). It has been demonstrated that the growth of M. globosa can be inhibited in vivo by primary sulphonamides, which are the typical CA inhibitors. Here, we report the cloning, purification, and characterisation of the β-CA (MpaCA) from the pathogenic fungus M. pachydermatis, which is homologous to the enzyme encoded in the genome of M. globosa and M. restricta, that are responsible for dandruff and seborrhoeic dermatitis. Fungal CAs could be thus considered a new pharmacological target for combating fungal infections and drug resistance developed by most fungi to the already used drugs.

The Importance of Vacuolar Ion Homeostasis and Trafficking in Hyphal Development and Virulence in Candida albicans.

The vacuole of Candida albicans plays a significant role in many processes including homeostasis control, cellular trafficking, dimorphic switching, and stress tolerance. Thus, understanding the factors affecting vacuole function is important for the identification of new drug targets needed in response to the world’s increasing levels of invasive infections and the growing issue of fungal drug resistance. Past studies have shown that vacuolar proton-translocating ATPases (V-ATPases) play a central role in pH homeostasis and filamentation. Vacuolar protein sorting components (VPS) regulate V-ATPases assembly and at the same time affect hyphal development. As well, vacuolar calcium exchange systems like Yvc1 and Pmc1 maintain cytosolic calcium levels while being affected by V-ATPases function. All these proteins play a role in the virulence and pathogenesis of C. albicans. This review highlights the relationships among V-ATPases, VPS, and vacuolar calcium exchange proteins while summarizing their importance in C. albicans infections.

The effects of incorporation of the counterparts and mimics of L-lysine on the antimicrobial activity, hemolytic activity, cytotoxicity and tryptic stability of antimicrobial peptide polybia-MPII.

Due to the limited effects of conventional antibiotics on the increasing emergence of drug-resistant bacteria and fungi, novel antimicrobial agents were urgently needed to alleviate this phenomenon. Nowadays, antimicrobial peptides are believed to be a promising candidate for a new generation of antimicrobial drugs. Antimicrobial peptide polybia-MPII (MPII) was first isolated from the venom of the social wasp Polybia paulista with a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity. In the present study, the counterparts and mimics of cationic amino acids of Lys, such as Arg, His, Orn, Dab and Dap were employed to substitute Lys in the sequence of MPII. The effects of the incorporation of these amino acids on its antimicrobial activity, hemolytic activity, cytotoxicity, enzyme stability and therapeutic potential were explored. Our results showed that although the incorporation of Arg could improve its antimicrobial activity, there is no improvement in enzyme stability. The incorporation of His makes MPII exert its antimicrobial activity in a pH-dependent manner. Notably, incorporating Dap could effectively decrease its hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity and enhance its enzyme stability against trypsin. In conclusion, this study would provide an effective strategy to improve the bioavailability and metabolic stability of AMPs while decrease their hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Antifungal Activity of Silver Nanoparticles Embedded in Pullulan Matrices.

Steady developments made in nanotechnology-based products have facilitated new perspectives for combating drug-resistant fungi. Silver nanoparticles represent one of the most attractive nanomaterials in biomedicine due to their exclusive optical, electromagnetic, and catalytic properties and antifungal potency compared with other metal nanoparticles. Most studies show that the physicochemical parameters affecting the antifungal potential of AgNPs include the shape, size, surface charge, and concentration and colloidal state. For the present study, pullulan (P) and its oxidized counterpart (PO) have been selected as matrices for the silver nanoparticles’ generation and stabilization (AgNPs). The TEMPO (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl radical)–sodium hypochlorite–sodium bromide system was used for the C6 selective oxidation of pullulan in order to introduce negatively charged carboxylic groups in its structure. The structure and morphology of the synthesized AgNPs were analyzed using FTIR and EDX. The main objective of this study was to elucidate the antifungal activity of AgNPs on the clinical yeasts isolates and compare the performance of AgNPs with the conventional antifungals. In this study, different concentrations of AgNPs were tested to examine antifungal activity on various clinical isolates.

Construction and activity evaluation of novel dual-target (SE/CYP51) anti-fungal agents containing amide naphthyl structure

With the increase of fungal infection and drug resistance, it is becoming an urgent task to discover the highly effective antifungal drugs. In the study, we selected the key ergosterol bio-synthetic enzymes (Squalene epoxidase, SE; 14 α-demethylase, CYP51) as dual-target receptors to guide the construction of novel antifungal compounds, which could achieve the purpose of improving drug efficacy and reducing drug-resistance. Three different series of amide naphthyl compounds were generated through the method of skeleton growth, and their corresponding target products were synthesized. Most of compounds displayed the obvious biological activity against different Candida spp. and Aspergillus fumigatus. Among of them, target compounds 14a-2 and 20b-2 not only possessed the excellent broad-spectrum anti-fungal activity (MIC50, 0.125–2 μg/mL), but also maintained the anti-drug-resistant fungal activity (MIC50, 1–4 μg/mL). Preliminary mechanism study revealed the compounds (14a-2, 20b-2) could block the bio-synthetic pathway of ergosterol by inhibiting the dual-target (SE/CYP51) activity, and this finally caused the cleavage and death of fungal cells. In addition, we also discovered that compounds 14a-2 and 20b-2 with low toxic and side effects could exert the excellent therapeutic effect in mice model of fungal infection, which was worthy for further in-depth study.

Genetic analysis of Hsp90 function in Cryptococcus neoformans highlights key roles in stress tolerance and virulence.

The opportunistic human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans has tremendous impact on global health, causing 181,000 deaths annually. Current treatment options are limited, and the frequent development of drug resistance exacerbates the challenge of managing invasive cryptococcal infections. In diverse fungal pathogens, the essential molecular chaperone Hsp90 governs fungal survival, drug resistance, and virulence. Therefore, targeting this chaperone has emerged as a promising approach to combat fungal infections. However, the role of Hsp90 in supporting C. neoformans pathogenesis remains largely elusive due to a lack of genetic characterization. To help dissect the functions of Hsp90 in C. neoformans, we generated a conditional expression strain in which HSP90 is under control of the copper-repressible promoter CTR4-2. Addition of copper to culture medium depleted Hsp90 transcript and protein levels in this strain, resulting in compromised fungal growth at host temperature; increased sensitivity to stressors, including the azole class of antifungals; altered C. neoformans morphology; and impaired melanin production. Finally, leveraging the fact that copper concentrations vary widely in different mouse tissues, we demonstrated attenuated virulence for the CTR4-2p-HSP90 mutant specifically in an inhalation model of Cryptococcus infection. During invasion and establishment of infection in this mouse model, the pathogen is exposed to the relatively high copper concentrations found in the lung as compared to blood. Overall, this work generates a tractable genetic system to study the role of Hsp90 in supporting the pathogenicity of C. neoformans and provides proof-of-principle that targeting Hsp90 holds great promise as a strategy to control cryptococcal infection.

A Novel Antimicrobial Peptide Sparamosin26-54 From the Mud Crab Scylla paramamosain Showing Potent Antifungal Activity Against Cryptococcus neoformans.

Due to the increasing prevalence of drug-resistant fungi and the limitations of current treatment strategies to fungal infections, exploration and development of new antifungal drugs or substituents are necessary. In the study, a novel antimicrobial peptide, named Sparamosin, was identified in the mud crab Scylla paramamosain, which contains a signal peptide of 22 amino acids and a mature peptide of 54 amino acids. The antimicrobial activity of its synthetic mature peptide and two truncated peptides (Sparamosin1–25 and Sparamosin26–54) were determined. The results showed that Sparamosin26–54 had the strongest activity against a variety of Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria and fungi, in particular had rapid fungicidal kinetics (killed 99% Cryptococcus neoformans within 10 min) and had potent anti-biofilm activity against C. neoformans, but had no cytotoxic effect on mammalian cells. The RNA-seq results showed that after Sparamosin26–54 treatment, the expression of genes involved in cell wall component biosynthesis, cell wall integrity signaling pathway, anti-oxidative stress, apoptosis and DNA repair were significantly up-regulated, indicating that Sparamosin26–54 might disrupt the cell wall of C. neoformans, causing oxidative stress, DNA damage and cell apoptosis. The underlying mechanism was further confirmed. Sparamosin26–54 could bind to several phospholipids in the cell membrane and effectively killed C. neoformans through disrupting the integrity of the cell wall and cell membrane observed by electron microscope and staining assay. In addition, it was found that the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased, the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was disrupted, and DNA fragmentation was induced after Sparamosin26–54 treatment, which are all hallmarks of apoptosis. Taken together, Sparamosin26–54 has a good application prospect as an effective antimicrobial agent, especially for C. neoformans infections.

Current developments in prevention and treatment of candidiasis: A review

Invasive fungus infection affects about six people out of every 100,000 people each year. Only half of these infections are detected throughout the patient's lifetime, making it one of the most common causes of death among intensive-care patients. The low detection rate is due to the diagnostic work's complexity, which comprises clinical, radiographic, and microbiological results. Antimycotic drug-resistant fungi are on the rise all over the world. Guidelines for identifying and treating invasive fungous infections caused by Candida spp., Aspergillus spp., Mucorales, and Fusarium spp. are the topic of this review. In typical hospital care, intrusive fungous infections are frequently ignored. They must include it as a necessary component of antimicrobial stewardship programmes. There is also a great need for novel antimycotic medication classes to be developed

Bioactivity of medicinal plant extracts against human fungal pathogens and evaluation of toxicity using Vero cells.

Medicinal plants are a potential source of new antifungal agents to combat the development of drug-resistant fungi. This study aims to investigate the aerial parts of Alternanthera sessilis (Amaranthaceae) and Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae), and the leaves of Catunaregam spinosa (Rubiaceae) and Tradescantia spathacea (Commelinaceae) for antifungal activity and cytotoxicity. The plant materials were extracted sequentially using hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, ethanol, methanol, and distilled water. The antifungal activity was evaluated against four species of yeasts and two species of filamentous fungi using a colorimetric broth microdilution method. The toxicity of the extracts was assessed using African monkey kidney epithelial (Vero) cells. All 24 extracts from the four medicinal plants showed inhibitory activity against all fungal species, except Aspergillus fumigatus, with a minimum inhibitory concentration range of 0.04-2.50 mg/mL. The antifungal activity of these plants was more prominent on the yeasts than the filamentous fungi. Generally, the less polar extracts (hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate) of the plants had stronger antifungal activity than the more polar extracts (ethanol, methanol, and water). In contrast, toxicity assessment revealed that the less polar extracts showed relatively higher toxicity towards the Vero cells than the more polar extracts. The lowest median cytotoxic concentration was shown by the chloroform extract of A. sessilis (17.4 ± 0.4 μg/mL). All water extracts, the methanol extract of I. aquatica, and the ethyl acetate, ethanol, and methanol extracts of T. spathacea did not show significant toxicity (P>0.05) towards the Vero cells. The results suggested that Tradescantia spathacea has the most promising potential for pharmaceutical developments due to its broad spectrum and selective activity against human fungal pathogens.

Paving the Way to Overcome Antifungal Drug Resistance: Current Practices and Novel Developments for Rapid and Reliable Antifungal Susceptibility Testing.

The past year has established the link between the COVID-19 pandemic and the global spread of severe fungal infections; thus, underscoring the critical need for rapid and realizable fungal disease diagnostics. While in recent years, health authorities, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, have reported the alarming emergence and spread of drug-resistant pathogenic fungi and warned against the devastating consequences, progress in the diagnosis and treatment of fungal infections is limited. Early diagnosis and patient-tailored therapy are established to be key in reducing morbidity and mortality associated with fungal (and cofungal) infections. As such, antifungal susceptibility testing (AFST) is crucial in revealing susceptibility or resistance of these pathogens and initiating correct antifungal therapy. Today, gold standard AFST methods require several days for completion, and thus this much delayed time for answer limits their clinical application. This review focuses on the advancements made in developing novel AFST techniques and discusses their implications in the context of the practiced clinical workflow. The aim of this work is to highlight the advantages and drawbacks of currently available methods and identify the main gaps hindering their progress toward clinical application.

Catalytic defense against fungal pathogens using nanozymes

Abstract Fungal infections are still a major challenge for clinics, resulting from the resistance of drug-resistant fungi and the toxicity of antifungal drugs. Defense against fungal invasions via enzymatic catalysis has been found in nature. The use of nanozymes, as artificial enzyme mimics, may be a promising strategy to induce fungal death due to their advantages such as tunable catalytic activity, high stability, low cost, and easy preparation. Here, the importance of natural enzymes in the defense against fungi is outlined. The progress in antifungal performance and potential application of nanozymes and the related antifungal mechanisms are also summarized. Finally, the perspective and challenges in this field for future study, pointing out that nanozyme-based catalytic therapy represents a promising alternative strategy for antifungal treatment, are highlighted.