Transition Of Droplets Research Articles

The effect of decafluorobutane lipid nanoemulsion concentration on oxygen scavenging via acoustic droplet vaporization

Acoustic droplet vaporization (ADV) is the phase transition of liquid droplets into gas microbubbles via ultrasound. Oxygen diffuses from the surrounding fluid into the microbubbles. This study determined the efficiency of oxygen scavenging using a lipid decafluorobutane (DFB) nanoemulsion. DFB nanoemulsions were prepared using high-shear pressure homogenization. Nanoemulsion size distributions and concentrations were measured (n = 10) using a Beckman Coulter Multisizer 4. Oxygen scavenging in 95% oxygenated water was measured in a flow phantom prior to introducing DFB nanoemulsion at concentrations of 0.05 × 10−4, 0.25 × 10−4, 0.5 × 10−4, 2.5 × 10−4, and 5 × 10−4 mL/mL and with ADV nucleated by an EkoSonic catheter driven with 47 W electrical power. The DFB nanoemulsion had a modal diameter of 920 ± 60 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.11 ± 0.03, and concentration of 3.11 × 10–2 ± 0.01 × 10–2 mL/mL. No statistical significant differences was detected in droplet size distribution metrics for at least 5 h at room temperature and 23 days at 4C. The baseline oxygen partial pressure (pO2) of the water was 553 ± 8 mmHg for all experiments. Peri-ADV pO2 dropped to 505 ± 16, 398 ± 44, 348 ± 11, 231 ± 27, 241 ± 7 mmHg for increasing concentration. A significant difference in pO2 was seen between thelowest and highest concentration (p = 0.0097). The computed ADV transition efficiency was highest at 0.25 × 10−4 mL/mL.

Influence of environmental pressure on the energy coupling and droplet transition behavior in laser welding with filler wire

The influence of environmental pressure on droplet behavior and weld formation in laser welding with filler wire for 304 stainless steel was investigated and the energy coupling behavior was analyzed. As ambient pressure increases from 5 kPa to 700 kPa, the weld depth decreases by 77 %, the variance of the weld width increases approximately 5 times, and the continuity of the weld surface formation deteriorates. During the welding process, a high-speed camera was employed to observe the melt pool, plasma, and melt drop transition behavior. With an increase in the ambient pressure followed by an increase in the metal evaporation temperature, the effects of shielding of the plasma and its internal metal vapor particles on the laser beam lead to a reduction in the depth of the melt. The inverse bremsstrahlung absorption of laser by plasma increased by approximately 36.3 times at 700 kPa compared with that at atmospheric pressure. The number of metal vapor particles at 700 kPa is approximately 3.58 times higher than that at 101 kPa, and the average particle diameter is approximately 0.4 times higher, causing enhanced absorption of laser light by the metal vapor particles. An increase in gas density at elevated ambient pressures resulted in a significant increase in the resistance to droplet descent and decrease in the drive force, leading to an increase in the droplet transition period. This change shifts from a liquid bridge transition to a particle transition, which is the main cause of the deterioration of weld surface formation at high pressures.

Spontaneous Liquid Droplet-to-Gel Transition of Citrulline Polypeptide Complexed with Nucleic Acids.

Inside cells, proteins complex with nucleic acids to form liquid droplets resulting from liquid-liquid phase separation. The presence of mutated proteins can change the state of these liquid droplets to solids or gels, triggering neurodegenerative diseases. The mechanism of the liquid to solid or gel transition is still unclear. Solutions of poly(l-ornithine-co-l-citrulline) (PLOC) copolymers, which exhibit upper critical solution temperature-type behavior, change state upon cooling. In this study, we evaluated the effect of nucleic acids complexed with PLOC on phase changes. In the presence of nucleic acids, such as polyC and polyU, PLOC formed liquid droplets at low temperatures. The droplets dissolved at temperatures above the phase separation temperature. The phase separation temperature depended on the chemical structure of the nucleobase, implying that electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions between the nucleic acid and PLOC influenced phase separation. Furthermore, the liquid droplets spontaneously changed to gel-like precipitates due to spontaneous release of nucleic acids from the complex. The rate of the liquid droplet-to-gel transition depended on the magnitude of electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions between PLOC and nucleic acid. PLOC complexed with mRNA also underwent a liquid droplet-to-gel transition upon the release of mRNA. This work provides insights into the mechanism of pathogenic transitions of the cellular droplets.

Stability analysis and porosity inhibition mechanism of oscillating laser-arc hybrid welding process for medium-thick plate TC4 titanium alloy

The influence of oscillating laser frequency and oscillation diameter on the stability and porosity of laser-arc hybrid welding of titanium alloys were investigated. The microstructure and basic mechanical properties of oscillating laser-arc hybrid welded joints were revealed. The results show that the oscillating laser significantly improved the macroscopic morphology of the joints, reducing the porosity from 5.48 % to 0.12 %. In the conventional laser-arc hybrid welding process, the number of keyhole surface closures was more and the time of droplet transition was longer, resulting in poor process stability. When the frequency was 150 Hz and the diameter was 1.5 mm at oscillating laser conditions, the number of keyhole closures within 200 ms was significantly reduced to 5 times compared to the conventional laser-arc hybrid welding (23 times). The droplet transition was stable, which resulted in a more stable hybrid welding process. In addition, after one oscillation cycle, the forward distance of the laser was relatively short, which can reopen the smaller pores generated in the previous cycle, leading to a significant reduction in porosity. When the frequency and diameter of oscillation decreased, the fluctuation for keyhole morphology was greater and the droplet transition was instability, resulting in an increase in porosity; When the oscillation increased, the fluctuation of the keyhole outer diameter was larger and the penetration depth decreased, which was not conducive to the welding of medium-thick plates. In the oscillating laser-arc hybrid welding process, columnar crystals in the middle of the molten pool grew towards the surface, reducing the segregation of impurities in the weld center. As a result, the elongation percentage of the joints was improved by 36.58 % compared to the conventional laser joints.

Enhancing wire arc additive manufacturing in vibrational environments with longitudinal magnetic fields

To enhance the appearance and mechanical properties of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) specimens within a vibrational environment, this study systematically investigated the forming process and results of ER50-6 steel deposition under external longitudinal magnetic field conditions. The research revealed that applying an appropriately longitudinal magnetic field significantly improved the appearance quality of the formed specimens, particularly under low vibration conditions, with optimized magnetic field parameters at a current of 0.95 A demonstrating prominent effects. The introduction of the longitudinal magnetic field effectively constrained the arc, imparting higher stability. Moreover, the magnetic field accelerated droplet transitions, reducing the occurrences of large droplets and short-circuit transitions, resulting in smoother droplet transitions. However, in high vibration environments, finding a magnetic field of suitable strength for substantial improvement proved challenging due to the influence of vibrational inertial forces. Finally, the introduction of the longitudinal magnetic field refined the grain structure and improved the tensile strength, yield strength and elongation of the samples, reaching 470 MPa, 358 MPa and 31.2%, respectively.

Extended free-energy functionals for achiral and chiral ferroelectric nematic liquid crystals: theory and simulation.

Polar nematic liquid crystals are new classes of condensed-matter states, where the inversion symmetry common to the traditional apolar nematics is broken. Establishing theoretical descriptions for the novel phase states is an urgent task. Here, we develop a Landau-type mean-field theory for both the achiral and chiral ferroelectric nematics. In the polar nematic states, the inversion symmetry breaking adds three new contributions: an additional odd elastic term (corresponding to the flexoelectricity in symmetry) to the standard Oseen-Frank free energy, electrostatic effect and an additional Landau term relating to the gradient of local polarization. The coupling between the scalar order parameter and polarization order should be considered. In the chiral and polar nematic state, we reveal that the competition between the twist elasticity and polarity dictates effective compressive energy arising from the quasi-layer structure. The polarization gradient is an essential term for describing the ferroelectric nature. Besides, we successfully simulate an experimentally reported structural transition in ferroelectric nematic droplets from a concentric-vortex-like to a line-disclination-mediated topology based on the developed theory. The approaches provide theoretical foundations for testing and predicting polar structures in emerging polar liquid crystals.

Dual-targeted fluorescent probe for tracking polarity and phase transition processes during lipophagy.

Eukaryotic cells regulate various cellular processes through membrane-bound and membrane-less organelles, enabling active signal communication and material exchange. Lysosomes and lipid droplets are representative organelles, contributing to cell lipophagy when their interaction and metabolism are disrupted. Our limited understanding of the interacting behaviours and physicochemical properties of different organelles during lipophagy hinders accurate diagnosis and treatment of related diseases. In this contribution, we report a fluorescent probe, PTZ, engineered for dual-targeting of lipid droplets and lysosomes. PTZ can track liquid-liquid phase separation and respond to polarity shifts through ratiometric fluorescence emission, elucidating the lipophagy process from the perspective of organelle behavior and physicochemical properties. Leveraging on the multifunctionality of PTZ, we have successfully tracked the polarity and dynamic changes of lysosomes and lipid droplets during lipophagy. Furthermore, an unknown homogeneous transition of lipid droplets and lysosomes was discovered, which provided a new perspective for understanding lipophagy processes. And this work is expected to serve as a reference for diagnosis and treatment of lipophagy-related diseases.

Pinning-depinning transition of droplets on inclined substrates with a three-dimensional topographical defect.

Droplets on inclined substrates can depin and slide freely above a critical substrate inclination angle. Pinning can be caused by topographical defects on the substrate, and understanding the influence of defect geometry on the pinning-depinning transition is important for diverse applications such as fog harvesting, droplet-based microfluidic devices, self-cleaning surfaces, and inkjet printing. Here, we develop a lubrication-theory-based model to investigate the motion of droplets on inclined substrates with a single three-dimensional Gaussian-shaped defect that can be in the form of a bump or a dent. A precursor-film/disjoining-pressure approach is used to capture contact-line motion, and a nonlinear evolution equation is derived which describes droplet thickness as a function of the position along the substrate and time. The evolution equation is solved numerically using an alternating direction implicit finite-difference scheme to study how the defect geometry influences the critical inclination angle and the shape of a pinned droplet. It is found that the critical substrate inclination angle increases as the defect becomes taller/deeper or wider along the direction lateral to the droplet-sliding direction. However, the critical inclination angle decreases as the defect becomes wider along the sliding direction. Below the critical inclination angle, the advancing contact line of the droplet at the droplet centerline is pinned to the defect at the point having maximum negative slope. Simple scaling relations that reflect the influence of defect geometry on the droplet retention force arising from surface tension are able to account for many of the trends observed in the numerical simulations.

Interfacial and intrinsic molecular effects on the phase separation/transition of heteroprotein condensates

Liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS) and droplet formation by LLPS are key concepts used to explain compartmentalization in living cells. Protein contact to a membrane surface is considered an important process for protein organization in a liquid phase or during transition to a solid or liquid dispersion state. The direct experimental comprehensive investigation is; however, not performed on the surface–droplet interaction and phase transition. In the present study, we constructed simple and reproducible experiments to analyze the structural transition of aggregates and droplets in an ovalbumin (OVA) and lysozyme (LYZ) complex on glass slides with various coatings. The difference in droplet-surface interaction may only be important in the boundary region between aggregates and droplets of a protein mixture, as shown in the phase diagram. Co-aggregates of OVA-LYZ changed to droplet-like circular forms during incubation. In contrast, free l-lysine resulted in the uniform droplet-to-solid phase separation at lower concentrations and dissolved any structures at higher concentrations. These results represent the first phase-diagram-based analysis of the phase transition of droplets in a protein mixture and a comparison of surface-surface and small molecular-droplet structure interactions.

An integrated and multi-functional droplet-based microfluidic platform for digital DNA amplification

Digital DNA amplification is a powerful method for detecting and quantifying rare nucleic acids. In this study, we developed a multi-functional droplet-based platform that integrates the traditional digital DNA amplification workflow into a one-step device. This platform enables efficient droplet generation, transition, and signal detection within a 5-min timeframe, distributing the sample into a uniform array of 4 × 104 droplets (variation <2%) within a chamber. Subsequent in-situ DNA amplification, fluorescence detection, and signal analysis were carried out. To assess the platform's performance, we quantitatively detected the human epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutation and human papillomavirus (HPV) mutation using digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR) and digital loop-mediated isothermal amplification (dLAMP), respectively. The fluorescence results exhibited a positive, linear, and statistically significant correlation with target DNA concentrations ranging from 101 to 105 copies/μL, demonstrating the capability and feasibility of the integrated device for dPCR and dLAMP. This platform offers high-throughput droplet generation, eliminates droplet fusion and transition, is user-friendly, reduces costs compared to current methods, and holds potential for thermocycling and isothermal nucleic acid quantification with high sensitivity and accuracy.

Transit Time Theory for a Droplet Passing through a Slit in Pressure-Driven Low Reynolds Number Flows.

Soft objects squeezing through small apertures are crucial for many in vivo and in vitro processes. Red blood cell transit time through splenic inter-endothelial slits (IESs) plays a crucial role in blood filtration and disease progression, while droplet velocity through constrictions in microfluidic devices is important for effective manipulation and separation processes. As these transit phenomena are not well understood, we sought to establish analytical and numerical solutions of viscous droplet transit through a rectangular slit. This study extends from our former theory of a circular pore because a rectangular slit is more realistic in many physiological and engineering applications. Here, we derived the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) of a droplet passing through a slit by combining planar Poiseuille flow, the Young-Laplace equations, and modifying them to consider the lubrication layer between the droplet and the slit wall. Compared to the pore case, we used the Roscoe solution instead of the Sampson one to account for the flow entering and exiting a rectangular slit. When the surface tension and lubrication layer were negligible, we derived the closed-form solutions of transit time. When the surface tension and lubrication layer were finite, the ODEs were solved numerically to study the impact of various parameters on the transit time. With our solutions, we identified the impact of prescribed pressure drop, slit dimensions, and droplet parameters such as surface tension, viscosity, and volume on transit time. In addition, we also considered the effect of pressure drop and surface tension near critical values. For this study, critical surface tension for a given pressure drop describes the threshold droplet surface tension that prevents transit, and critical pressure for a given surface tension describes the threshold pressure drop that prevents transit. Our solutions demonstrate that there is a linear relationship between pressure and the reciprocal of the transit time (referred to as inverse transit time), as well as a linear relationship between viscosity and transit time. Additionally, when the droplet size increases with respect to the slit dimensions, there is a corresponding increase in transit time. Most notably, we emphasize the initial antagonistic effect of surface tension which resists droplet passage but at the same time decreases the lubrication layer, thus facilitating passage. Our results provide quantitative calculations for understanding cells passing through slit-like constrictions and designing droplet microfluidic experiments.

Microfiber generation on centrifugal microfluidic platforms using fluidic barriers

Fluidic barriers within centrifugal microfluidic devices represent a novel concept for creating emulsions and microstructures by leveraging the density variations among different liquids. This study focuses on characterizing this approach for a specific application: the generation of microfibers, specifically calcium alginate microfibers (Ca-alginate). Our investigation incorporates both experimental and numerical simulation approaches. We examined how the microfiber diameter responds to variations in polymer concentration, rotation speed, and micronozzle size. Notably, we observed the transition of droplets into microfibers when the rotational speed ranged between 600 rpm and 1300 rpm. The findings indicate that reducing the concentration of the sodium-alginate solution from 3 % to 1 % and decreasing the micronozzle diameter from 0.3 mm to 0.15 mm led to a reduction in microfiber diameter by up to 18.4 % and 47.9 %, respectively. The generated grooved microfibers in this study can be used as scaffolds for tissue growth and regeneration in tissue engineering.

Wetting Transition of Liquid Tin on the Surfaces of Initially Oxidized Steels

Experiments were carried out to investigate the wetting behaviour of liquid tin on two different steel substrates EN1.4301 stainless steel and 42CrMo4 low-alloyed steel. The experiments were carried out in a vacuum furnace at residual pressure (10−8 bar) with the temperature raised till 1233 K (960 °C). The transition of the liquid tin droplet from a non-wetting to a wetting state was achieved on the surface of both steels after the spontaneous oxide removal. The transition temperatures in the Sn/EN1.4301 and Sn/42CrMo4 systems were nearly identical, 1140 K and 1130 K, respectively. SEM images showed the formation of the Fe–Sn intermetallic compounds at the Sn/steel interfaces above the transition temperature. Tin penetration into the grain boundaries of EN1.4301 and 42CrMo4 steels was also observed.Graphical abstract

Shape variation and flat plateau formation of a frozen nanofluid droplet

Droplet freezing is a phenomenon of great interest, not only from a fundamental perspective, but also due to its significant contributions to various industrial and ecological processes. Despite the extensive research on pure water droplet freezing, the freezing dynamics of nanofluid droplets have not been investigated to the same extent. It has been observed that frozen nanofluid droplets exhibit a distinctive flat plateau shape at their apex, in contrast to the pointed tip observed in pure water droplets. Our experimental investigation has revealed that when the vertical velocity of nanofluid droplet's freezing front is lower than a critical value, nanoparticles are expelled from the freezing liquid and aggregate at the freezing front to form a particle layer. This layer causes a deviation between the motion direction of the tri-junction line and the interface curve of the unfrozen liquid, resulting in an increased angle growth and the formation of a plateau at the top of the frozen droplet. The critical freezing velocity was found to be independent of the contact angle but showed a slight increase with subfreezing temperature. As the subfreezing temperature rises, the flat plateau of the frozen droplet transitions to a pointed tip. To further explore the freezing dynamics of nanofluid droplets, we conducted a statistical analysis of the cone angle at the apex of the frozen droplets. Our results indicates that in most cases, the cone angle is greater than the universal value observed for pure water droplets. And the cone angle is effected by the droplet volume size and subfreezing temperature.

Green non-fluorinated gradient anisotropic microcolumn array: Enables droplet transition to a low viscosity state on highly viscous substrates

Superhydrophobic surfaces with low adhesion and self-cleaning properties have broad application prospected in various fields. However, the current methods for preparing low-adhesion superhydrophobic surfaces typically require toxic chemicals or fluorination modifications, which are prone to environmental pollution and health hazards, and still face challenges for applications in industries such as food and medical care. This paper aims to prepare anisotropic gradient array surfaces (AGAS) with low adhesion on stainless steel substrates by WEDM, without the need for modification with low-surface-energy materials. AGAS can achieve a stable Cassie state with a low adhesion performance by controlling the dimensional parameters and structural inclination of columnar arrays. Experiments and numerical simulations show that owing to the anisotropic gradient structure, pinning and de-pinning occur asymmetrically in time at the contact lines of the leading and trailing edges of droplets impacting the AGAS. On AGAS, droplets can jump and roll in the direction of gradient descent during the impact process to complete self-cleaning. Due to the discontinuity of the solid–liquid–gas three-phase contact line and the stepped arrangement of the column array, the prepared surface can achieve low adhesion and self-cleaning properties for many common liquid foods in daily life, including milk and juice.

Flow state transition and hydrodynamic characteristics of droplets on fiber in liquid phase environment

The movement of droplets on fiber is crucial for industrial applications. In this work, the motion behavior and flow state transformation mechanism of droplets on vertical fiber in liquid phase environment is systematically investigated by using image processing technology. The effect of different factors on the hydrodynamic characteristics is analyzed during the droplet movement process. The experimental results show that the three flow states are observed during the flow of droplets along the fiber in liquid phase environment, including stable state, oscillation state, and coalescence state. Among them, the transverse oscillation of the droplets has a certain periodicity, and the primary coalescence rate of the droplets is 16.22% faster than secondary coalescence. Increasing the fiber diameter can expand the flow rate range of droplets in the stable state and significantly enhance the critical flow rate. Moreover, with the increase of nozzle diameter, the flow rate range of the oscillation state is increased and the flow rate range of the coalescence state is decreased. During the stable state, the hydrodynamic characteristics of droplets are influenced by factors such as fiber diameter, nozzle diameter, and flow rate. The study results not only contribute to deeply understand the movement mechanism of droplets on fiber surface, but also have an important significance in promoting the development of liquid–liquid extraction technology and droplet microfluidics technology.

Effect of Microstructure on Coalescence-Induced Droplet Jumping Behavior of a Superhydrophobic Surface and Its Application for Marine Atmospheric Corrosion Protection

Coalescence-induced droplet jumping behavior (CIDJB) refers to the spontaneous jumping of droplets on a specific superhydrophobic surface (SS) without any external energy, which offers a new approach to the field of marine atmospheric corrosion protection by isolating corrosive media. In this study, a flower-like micro–nanocomposite structure SS (F-SS) and a sheet-like nanostructure SS (S-SS) were prepared on copper sheets by ammonia immersion and chemical vapor deposition. Firstly, we observed the microstructure characteristics of the samples and secondly analyzed its chemical composition and wettability. Moreover, the CIDJB was studied by simulated condensation experiments, and the influence of the microstructure on CIDJB was revealed. Meanwhile, the atmospheric corrosion resistance of samples was analyzed by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements, and the protection mechanism of SS through CIDJB was proposed. The results showed that the S-SS had a smaller solid–liquid contact area and lower interfacial adhesion, which is more conducive to CIDJB. Since a larger solid–liquid contact area requires greater interface adhesion energy for the droplets to overcome, droplet jumping behavior was not observed on the F-SS. Compared with the F-SS, the S-SS exhibited outstanding corrosion resistance due to the wettability transition of droplets by CIDJB, which facilitated the restoration of the air film to insulate the corrosive medium. The present study provides a reference for a marine atmospheric corrosion resistance technique through CIDJB on an SS.

Sliding, vibrating and swinging droplets on an oscillating fibre

We study experimentally the dynamics of a water droplet on a tilted and vertically oscillating rigid fibre. As we vary the frequency and amplitude of the oscillations the droplet transitions between different modes: harmonic pumping, subharmonic pumping, a combination of rocking and pumping modes, and a combination of pumping and swinging modes. We characterize these responses and report how they affect the sliding speed of the droplet along the fibre. The swinging mode is explained by a minimal model making an analogy between the droplet and a forced elastic pendulum.

Heat and mass transfer in electron beam additive manufacturing

The electron beam wire-feed additive manufacturing (EBAM) technology utilizes a high-energy electron beam as a heat source to bombard a metal wire in the vacuum environment to form a molten pool. The stability and quality of the deposition mainly depend on the transition behavior of the droplet. To conduct this research, a high-fidelity thermo-fluid dynamic simulation model based on the local reconstruction of the 3D model was developed and verified. The model used the Monte-Carlo algorithm to update the scattering trajectories and residual energies of high-energy electrons on the irradiated surface of the wire and molten pool at each time step in the numerical calculation. Quantitatively analyzed the “electron-wire” instantaneous energy coupling mechanism in the droplet transition mode, insertion transition mode, and liquid bridge transition mode, and finally established an energy-matching criterion for maintaining a stable deposited track morphology. The results show that during the initial stage of wire melting, the droplet will climb along the wire feeding direction, grow under gravity, and eventually drop under the combined effects of gravity and recoil pressure. Different forms of molten droplets will form various solidification morphology, with the liquid bridge transition mode being the most desirable. To maintain a stable liquid bridge transition, it is necessary to control the droplet generation height within the range of 0–2.7 mm. The collapse of the deposited track, caused by heat accumulation during the multilayer deposition, would also alter the droplet generation height. Therefore, to maintain the liquid bridge transition mode in the multilayer multi-channel forming process, it is also necessary to ensure that the energy density of the deposited track is slightly greater than 1.16×1010 J/m3 and the energy density of the wire is slightly greater than 2.63×1010 J/m3.

Magnetic regulation on evaporation behavior of ferrofluid sessile droplets.

Active magnetic regulation is an emerging subject due to the special and programmable wettability of the sessile ferrofluid droplet. The interaction between liquid and externally applied magnetic field gives rise to controllable spreading and thus evaporation. This work reports the experimental and numerical results of the natural evaporation of a ferrofluid droplet under the effect of a nonuniform magnetic field. The evaporation process of droplets is described into two stages in terms of the geometric distortion and the appearance of the deposition pattern. The presence of the magnetic field leads to a transition of droplet drying from the disk shape with a ring to multiple peaks. A numerical model is established to simulate the evaporation process of ferrofluid droplets with the arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian method for tracking droplet deformation. The increasing magnetic flux could effectively enlarge the contact radius and enhance the internal flow of the ferrofluid droplet, thus promoting the evaporation process. The numerical results are verified by comparing the droplet geometry deformation with the experimental results. In both the numerical and experimental investigations, the externally applied magnetic field shortens the process of ferrofluid droplet evaporation. The design and optimization of the magnetic field play an important role in regulating ferrofluid droplet evaporation, which in turn facilitates technological advances in industries such as evaporative cooling and inkjet printing.