Drive For Muscularity Scale Research Articles

Validation of the Spanish version of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) among males: Confirmatory factor analysis

Drive for Muscularity (DM) has been shown to be a relevant construct for measuring and understanding male body image. For this reason, it is important to have reliable and valid instruments with which to measure DM, and to date no such instruments exist in Spain. This study analyzes the psychometric and structural properties of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) in a sample of Spanish adolescent males (N=212), with the aim of studying the structural validity of the scale by using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), as well as analyzing the internal consistency and construct (convergent and discriminant) and concurrent validity of the instrument. After testing three models, results indicated that the best structure was a two-dimensional model, with the factors of muscularity-oriented body image (MBI) and muscularity behavior (MB). The scale showed good internal consistency (α=.90) and adequate construct validity. Furthermore, significant associations were found between DM and increased difficulties in emotional regulation (rho=.37) and low self-esteem (rho=−.19). Findings suggest that the two-factor structure may be used when assessing drive for muscularity among adolescent males in Spain.

A two-stage epidemiological study of eating disorders and muscle dysmorphia in male university students in Buenos Aires.

Studies using traditional screening instruments tend to report a lower prevalence of eating disorders (EDs) in men than is observed in women. It is therefore unclear whether such instruments are valid for the assessment of ED in males. Lack of a formal diagnostic definition of muscle dysmorphia syndrome (MD) makes it difficult to identify men at risk. The study aimed to assess the prevalence of ED and MD in male university students of Buenos Aires. A cross-sectional, two-stage, representative survey was of 472 male students from six different schools in Buenos Aires, mostly aged between 18 and 28 years. The first stage involved administration of self-report questionnaires (Eating Attitude Test-26; scores ≥15 indicate "at risk" status). In Stage 2 students at risk of developing EDs were evaluated with a clinical interview, the Eating Disorder Examination (EDE; 12th edition). Two control students were interviewed for every at risk student. The prevalence of EDs among university male students was 1.9% (n = 9). All participants with an ED presented with illness classified as eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS). Using the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) with a 52-point threshold we identified possible MD in 6.99% (n = 33) of the sample. The prevalence of ED detected in this study is comparable with previous findings in male populations, and below that observed in female populations. However, the prevalence of possible cases of MD resembles the total rate of EDs in women. Characteristics associated with EDs and MD in men are also discussed.

A socio-sports model of disordered eating among Brazilian male athletes

The objective of this study was to develop a socio-sports model of disordered eating (DE) in Brazilian male athletes. Three hundred and twenty one athletes over 12 years of age from 18 different sports modalities were investigated. The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) was applied to evaluate DE. The Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ) was used to evaluate athlete dissatisfaction with body fat levels. The Muscularity Concern subscale of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) was used to evaluate athlete dissatisfaction with muscularity levels. To investigate the influence of sociocultural factors on body image, the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 (SATAQ-3) was applied. Body fat was estimated by skinfold measurement. Demographic data were collected (competitive level and training regimen). Structural equation modelling was conducted to analyse the relationships between research variables and the factors that mediate them. The results indicated that the sociocultural factors and body fat dissatisfaction adhered to socio-sports model of DE (X2 = 18.50, p = .001, RMSEA = .069, GFI = .97, AGFI = .91, TLI = .93). The BSQ accurately predicted the relationship between SATAQ-3 and EAT-26 (R2 = .08, p = 0.001) scores. A direct relationship between the SATAQ-3 and EAT-26 (R2 = .07, p = 0.01) and BSQ (R2 = .10, p = 0.001) scores was identified. No relationship was found between structural equation model and Muscularity Concern (R2 = .02, p = 0.14), competitive level (R2 = .01, p = 0.19), training regimen (R2 = .03, p = 0.11) or body fat (R2 = .02, p = 0.14). The results suggest that sociocultural factors and body fat dissatisfaction follow the socio-sports model of DE in Brazilian male athletes.

An examination of the psychometric properties of Brazilian Portuguese translations of the Drive for Muscularity Scale, the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire, and the Masculine Body Ideal Distress Scale.

The aim of this study was to translate into Brazilian Portuguese three scales for the assessment of men's body image, namely the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS), the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ), and the Male Body Ideal Distress Scale (MBIDS), and to evaluate the factor structure of each of these translated scales. A sample of 878 men completed translated versions of each of the scales, a previously translated Portuguese version of the Body Appreciation Scale, and demographic measures. Confirmatory factor analysis, using unweighted least square estimation and listwise deletion, was used to determine the scales' factorial structures. Results showed that the Portuguese DMS and MBIDS had similar factor structures as their parent versions, whereas the SMAQ had a three-factor structure that diverged from its parent scale. Adequate internal reliability coefficients and evidence of construct validity was established for all three scales. These translated scales provide useful tools for quantitative investigations of men's body image in the Brazilian context and expand the possibility of future cross-cultural research.

Muscularity Beliefs of Female College Student-Athletes

Female athletes in the United States face the paradoxical challenge of acquiring a degree of muscularity to be successful in their sport, yet they also endure pressure from societal expectations of femininity that often don’t conform with the notion of muscularity. To address research questions about how female student-athletes balance muscularity and femininity, we conducted a mixed-methods study to examine muscularity beliefs among female student-athletes, female college students, and male college student-athletes. We quantitatively examined Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) scores from 221 participants attending college in the Midwestern US. Results indicated that female student-athletes reported significantly higher DMS scores than female students, but male student-athletes reported the highest DMS scores in the sample. Qualitative results indicated that female student-athletes wanted to be muscular for these reasons: functionality (45%), health (42%), external gratification (21%), and internal gratification (18%). Only 16% of female student-athletes did not want to be muscular, whereas every male student-athlete reported a desire to be muscular. The results of this study can be used to better understand the unique drive for muscularity among athletes, particularly female college student-athletes who live the paradox of negotiating societal standards of femininity with this desire to be muscular. This enhanced understanding can help create more nuanced interventions for coaches, administrators, and mental health professionals to use to help female student-athletes create space to resist constraining societal gender ideologies. Doing so can help these student-athletes actualize their athletic potential on the field as well as their interpersonal and intrapersonal potential off the field.

Psychometric evaluation of the Drive for Muscularity Scale in a community-based sample of Scottish men participating in an organized sporting event

As the drive for muscularity is an important construct for researchers involved in understanding men's body image, having reliable and valid measures of the construct is essential. This study assessed the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) in a community-based sample of 594 Scottish men participating in an organized running event. Exploratory factor analysis revealed two subscales (Muscularity-oriented body image and Muscularity behavior) as well as a higher-order factor. Both subscales and the total score had acceptable levels of internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and construct validity. These findings provide support for the DMS as a measure of the drive for muscularity in men. It is recommended that, in future, careful consideration is given to the distinction between muscularity attitudes and behavior.

A longitudinal investigation of the Drive for Muscularity Scale: Predicting use of performance enhancing substances and weightlifting among males

The present study was designed to examine the predictive validity of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS; McCreary & Sasse, 2000). The drive for muscularity scale (DMS) is comprised of two subscales: a muscularity-oriented body image (MBI) subscale and a muscularity behavior (MB) subscale. The present study tested whether these subscales predicted two behavioral outcomes in the context of a longitudinal design: use of performance enhancing substances (PES) and weightlifting behavior. One hundred and sixty-one male undergraduates completed a questionnaire that assessed the drive for muscularity, PES use and weightlifting behavior at Time 1 and again 6 weeks later. Results indicated that the MB subscale at Time 1 significantly predicted both changes in PES use and weightlifting behavior controlling for past substance use and past weightlifting behavior. The MBI subscale failed to predict either changes in PES use or weightlifting behavior. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

The Muscular ideal: psychological, social, and medical perspectives

The Muscular Ideal: Psychological, Social and Medical Perspectives edited by J. Kevin Thompson and G. Cafri. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007, 265 pp. Thompson and Cafri have put together a collection of 12 monographs written by leading theorists and researchers in the field of body image. This collection is divided into five sections, each with its own focus: cultural, social, and psychological factors; definitions and measurements; medical issues, treatment, and prevention; special top-ics; and a conclusion. While the coverage of topics within the sections is sparse at times, as a whole, the collection is a worthwhile addition to the shelves of body image researchers. As the editors note in their Introduction to the book, the phenomena of the muscular ideal and male body image dissatisfaction are recent. Only in the last 20 years has having a muscular body become extremely important to men, so the history of this shift toward an ideal body image can be fairly accurately described. In addition, the last 20 years have seen the advent of muscle dysmorphia, a psychological disorder involving the desire for a muscular body coupled with a distortion of body image such that people with the disorder believe their bodies appear to them to be smaller than they actually are. The general focus of the book is factors influencing the origin of the muscular male body ideal and issues surrounding muscle dysmorphia. The first section deals with cultural, social, and psychological issues, and does an excellent job of setting the stage. Especially helpful is Chapter Two, by Lynne Luciano, which delineates the changes in ideal body image that have occurred in the United States. Also useful for both clinicians and researchers is Chapter One, by James Gray and Rebecca Ginsberg, which describes some of the factors that have contributed to the endorsement of the muscular ideal body image. These authors spend time discussing the muscular ideal in specific groups within the United States, but also consider cross-cultural findings related to the muscular ideal. The muscular ideal seems to be much more important in Western than in non-Western countries. Chapter Three describes bodybuilder culture, one to which few researchers are allowed access. The second section of the book deals with definitions and body measurements. Chapter Five, which is by the editors, provides a good overview of the measures of the muscular ideal. It is remarkably similar to an article the same authors published in Psychology of Men and Masculinity. Readers who are looking for more information on the topic of measurement will not find it here. In this section, the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) is highlighted. It is described in detail in Chapter Four by its creator, Donald McCreary. This measure is very useful, is psychometrically sound, and has appropriate research supporting its use. However, there are other measures that have been recently created, such as the Male Body Attitudes Scale, that are briefly mentioned but also deserve equal treatment. …