Household Drinking Water Research Articles

Contribution of household drinking water intake to arsenic and lead exposure among Uruguayan schoolchildren

BackgroundFood and water are common exposure sources of arsenic and lead among children. Whereas dietary sources of these toxicants are fairly well-studied, the contribution of drinking water to toxicant exposures is not well characterized in many populations, particularly in the Global South. ObjectiveTo assess the extent to which consumption of household drinking water contributes to arsenic and lead exposure among Uruguayan schoolchildren with low-level exposure. MethodsChildren, aged 5–8 years, were enrolled into the Salud Ambiental Montevideo study during 2009–2013 from schools in Montevideo, Uruguay. Participants reported water intake as part of two 24-h dietary recalls. Concentrations of arsenic were measured in first morning void urine samples, and adjusted for urinary specific gravity. Lead concentrations were measured in venous blood samples. Drinking water samples were collected from participants’ homes and toxicant concentrations measured. Data analyses involved a triangulation approach. First, multivariable linear regressions estimated the associations between toxicant exposure through drinking water, calculated for each child as the product of water intake and water toxicant concentration, and the respective toxicant biomarker concentrations among children with complete data on all variables (Sample A; n = 40). Second, regressions were repeated for participants with complete data on all variables except water intakes (Sample B; n = 195), after water intakes were imputed. Finally, models were constructed for participants of Sample B (n = 195) based on drinking water intakes assumed to be fixed at 25th, 50th, 75th percentile intakes of participants in sample A. ResultsToxicant exposure via drinking water intake was low. The triangulation approach revealed no associations between toxicant exposure through household water intake and the respective toxicant biomarker concentrations. ConclusionStudies with larger samples and repeated measures are needed to confirm these findings. Nevertheless, it appears that at low water toxicant concentrations, typical water consumption is not a major contributor to children's exposure.

Correlation between Catch-up Growth in Early Childhood with Cognitive Ability among School-Aged Children (10–12 Years): A Longitudinal Study

BACKGROUND: Children’s cognitive abilities are influenced by the nutritional condition of children in early childhood. Catch-up growth in early childhood affects cognitive abilities at school age. AIM: This study aims to analyze the effect of catch-up growth in early childhood on the cognitive abilities of school-aged children in Indonesia. METHODS: This study was a cohort study incorporating 10 years of follow-up using three waves of secondary data (1997, 2000, and 2007) from the Indonesia Family Life Survey. Research studies and data analysis were carried out from April to September 2021. The initial data collection of the study was conducted in 1997 when the children were 0–23 months old, then followed in 2000 (age 3–5 years) and 2007 (age 10–12 years). The study subjects were 537 children aged 0–23 months in 1997. Cognitive ability was measured using the Raven Progressive Matrices method. Statistical analysis for cognitive ability scores with catch-up growth was carried out using one-way analysis of variance and multivariate analysis using the generalized linear model. RESULTS: Significant differences were observed in the cognitive ability scores of normal children and stunted children who did not experience catch-up growth (p<0.001), but the cognitive scores of normal children are not significantly different from the stunting catch-up growth group. Other factors that affect the cognitive ability score were as follows: (1) Child factors consist of child stunting status, head circumference, hemoglobin levels, duration of breastfeeding, and complete basic immunization history; (2) parental factors such as father’s occupation, parental education, and number of parity; (3) household socioeconomic factors (household income and wealth index); and (4) environmental factors (housing area, father’s smoking habit, defecation facilities, and household drinking water sources). CONCLUSION: Cognitive abilities of school-age children were most influenced by catch-up growth, stunting status, duration of breastfeeding, number of parity, father’s education, father’s occupation, and father’s smoking habit. Children who experience catch-up growth have better cognitive abilities than stunted non-catch-up group or who experience stunting during early life.

Risk Control Efficiency of Polypropylene Cotton Filters in Household Drinking Water Purification System Considering Discoloration Control

Risk Control Efficiency of Polypropylene Cotton Filters in Household Drinking Water Purification System Considering Discoloration Control

The Burden of Poor Household Drinking-Water Quality on HIV/AIDS Infected Individuals in Rural Communities of Ugu District Municipality, Kwazulu-Natal Province, South Africa

The Burden of Poor Household Drinking-Water Quality on HIV/AIDS Infected Individuals in Rural Communities of Ugu District Municipality, Kwazulu-Natal Province, South Africa

Application of the quorum sensing inhibitor to improve ARGs removal by membrane-based household drinking water treatment process

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have become an increasing threat to human health. Membrane-based technologies have been applied to address multiple concerns regarding the quality of household drinking water (HDW), including ARGs. However, the long-term operation of membrane-based HDW purifiers would inevitably lead to biofouling, making the membrane turn from cleaner to a secondary pollution source. This study proposed a strategy based on quorum sensing inhibitor (QSI) to control ARGs in the finished water of HDW purifiers. Three reported QSIs, vanillin (VL), cranberry extracts (CBETs), and tannic acid (TA), were selected to investigate their effects on the removal of ARGs by typical HDW purifiers, and the corresponding influencing mechanism was elucidated. The results indicated that ARGs leakage occurred in the absence of QSI but disappeared with the addition of VL, CBETs, and TA. The introduction of VL increased the guarantee rate of ≥ 3 log ARGs removal increased from 63.3 to 70% (control group) to 88.9–100%. The influencing mechanism of QSIs on ARGs removal by membrane filtration can be attributed to direct effect (direct inactivation of the ARGs host) and indirect effects (adjusting the physiochemical properties of the membrane surface and bioaccumulation). This study provides data on the regulatory mechanisms of biofouling induced by QSI and proposes a new strategy for ARGs control by membrane-based processes.

An Analysis Unveiling the Habitation Coverage of Different States and Union Territories under the National Rural Drinking Water Program in India

Background: National Rural Drinking Water Program (NRDWP) attempts to provide each and every individual a sufficient amount of safe water for drinking, cooking and other essential household needs on a maintainable premise, with a base water quality standard, which ought to be helpfully open consistently and in all circumstances. Aim: The aim of this study was to analyze and unveil the habitations covered by the National Rural Drinking Water Program in different states and union territories of India. Materials and method: Secondary data regarding the total households in each states/ union territory and the households covered by the National Rural Drinking Water Program, Households Having Safe Drinking Water supply in India as per Census 2011 and availability of safe drinking water in households and the source of drinking waters was extracted from the 2018 National Health Profile’s annual publication by the Central Bureau of Health Intelligence (CBHI). Results: In India,43% of the households use tap water and 11% use well water.46.6% of the households have water within the premises, 35.8% of the households have water near the premises and 17.6% have it far away. 81.08% are fully covered habitations under the program and only 3.34% of the habitations in India are quality affected habitations. Conclusion: Although the targets have not been achieved, this program has attempted to provide safe drinking water to many people in different states and union territories in India. Keywords: Rural areas, Habitations, Drinking water, India..

About adjustment of requirements to zones of sanitary protection of sources of the centralized economic and drinking water supply of the population

Introduction. A review of the judicial practice of securing land use rights on the territory of sanitary protection zones (SPZ) of sources of centralized household drinking water supply of the population, a comparative analysis of Russian and foreign approaches to the legal regulation of sanitary protection of sources of centralized household drinking water supply (starting now - SPZ). The computational methods for assessing the spread of pollutants and determining the size of the boundaries of the 2 nd zone of the WSS for water sources, analysis of the degree of protection of aquifers of drinking water supply sources, which can become an alternative to expensive measures to prohibit economic activities in the territory of the SPZ, have been updated. The data on the water pollution of the sources of the centralized drinking water supply of the population of the Russian Federation, the Moscow River, on the effect of surface runoff polluted with persistent organic substances on the sanitary state of surface waters are presented. Material and methods. Methods of the survey, comparative analysis were applied to assess the legal regulation of sanitary protection of sources of centralized drinking water supply to the population in urbanized areas, hygienic assessment of water pollution, correlation and regression analysis. Results. The data of field studies of surface water bodies and groundwater in the Russian Federation indicate the low efficiency of wastewater treatment to ensure water quality safety in the sources of centralized drinking water supply to the population. On the one hand, the low efficiency of groundwater protection and the ability to protect groundwater due to natural conditions are shown. Judicial practice confirms the need to establish the security of a water supply source from wastewater when justifying health hazards and violations of current regulations. Conclusion. The analysis of the legal regulation of the protection of sources of centralized economic water supply to the population and treatment, wastewater disposal showed that the issues of the legal status of the territory of the SPZ of water sources are not developed. The need to standardize approaches to the organization of SPZ and the methods used to ensure the protection of sources of centralized drinking water supply to the population was not evaluated.

Case-Control Study of Household and Environmental Transmission of Typhoid Fever in India.

BackgroundTyphoid fever causes substantial morbidity and mortality in low- and middle-income countries. We conducted a case-control study in Vellore, southern India, to understand risk factors for transmission of typhoid.MethodsFrom April 2018 to October 2019, households of blood culture-confirmed typhoid cases that occurred within a fever surveillance cohort aged 6 months–15 years, and controls matched for age, sex, geographic location, and socioeconomic status, were recruited. Information on risk factors was obtained using standard questionnaires. Household and environmental samples were collected for detection of Salmonella Typhi using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Multivariable analysis was used to evaluate associations between risk factors and typhoid.ResultsOne hundred pairs of cases and controls were recruited. On multivariable regression analysis, mothers eating food from street vendors during the previous week (odds ratio [OR] = 2.04; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.03–4.12; P = .04) was independently associated with typhoid, whereas treatment of household drinking water (OR = 0.45; 95% CI, 0.25–0.80; P = .007) was protective. There was no significant difference in S Typhi detection between the environmental samples from case and control households.ConclusionsStreet-vended food is a risk factor for typhoid in densely populated urban communities of Vellore. Improved sanitation facilities and awareness about point-of-use water treatment are likely to contribute to typhoid control.

Trends, relationships and case attribution of antibiotic resistance between children and environmental sources in rural India

Bacterial antibiotic resistance is an important global health threat and the interfaces of antibiotic resistance between humans, animals and the environment are complex. We aimed to determine the associations and overtime trends of antibiotic resistance between humans, animals and water sources from the same area and time and estimate attribution of the other sources to cases of human antibiotic resistance. A total of 125 children (aged 1–3 years old) had stool samples analysed for antibiotic-resistant bacteria at seven time points over two years, with simultaneous collection of samples of animal stools and water sources in a rural Indian community. Newey–West regression models were used to calculate temporal associations, the source with the most statistically significant relationships was household drinking water. This is supported by use of SourceR attribution modelling, that estimated the mean attribution of cases of antibiotic resistance in the children from animals, household drinking water and wastewater, at each time point and location, to be 12.6% (95% CI 4.4–20.9%), 12.1% (CI 3.4–20.7%) and 10.3% (CI 3.2–17.3%) respectively. This underlines the importance of the ‘one health’ concept and requires further research. Also, most of the significant trends over time were negative, suggesting a possible generalised improvement locally.

Prenatal nitrosatable prescription drug intake, drinking water nitrate, and the risk of stillbirth: a register- and population-based cohort of Danish pregnancies, 1997\u20132017

BackgroundNitrosatable drugs commonly prescribed during pregnancy can react with nitrite to form N-nitroso compounds which have been associated with an increased risk of stillbirth. Whether maternal residential drinking water nitrate modifies this association is unknown. We investigated, if household drinking water nitrate was associated with stillbirth, and if it modified the association between nitrosatable prescription drug intake and the risk of stillbirth.MethodsWe conducted an individual-level register- and population-based cohort study using 652,810 women with the first recorded singleton pregnancy in the Danish Medical Birth Registry between 1997 and 2017. Nitrosatable drug exposure was recorded by use of the Danish National Patient Registry defined as women with a first redeemed prescription of a nitrosatable drug the first 22 weeks of pregnancy. The reference group was women with no redeemed prescription of a nitrosatable drug in this period. The average individual drinking water nitrate concentration level (mg/L) was calculated in the same period. We categorized nitrosatable drugs as secondary amines, tertiary amines, and amides. Cox hazard regression was used to estimate crude and adjusted hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals for stillbirth stratified into five categories of nitrate concentrations: ≤1 mg/L, > 1- ≤ 2 mg/L, > 2- ≤ 5 mg/L, > 5- ≤ 25 mg/L, and > 25 mg/L.ResultsDrinking water nitrate exposure in the population was not associated with the risk of stillbirth. Among 100,244 women who had a nitrosatable prescription drug redeemed ≤22 weeks of pregnancy of pregnancy, 418 (0.42%) had a stillbirth compared to 1993 stillbirths (0.36%) among 552,566 referent women. Women with any nitrosatable prescription drug intake and > 1- ≤ 2 mg/L nitrate concentration had an increased risk of stillbirth [adjusted hazard ratio 1.55 (95% confidence interval, 1.15–2.09)] compared with referent women. In the stratified analyses, the highest risk of stillbirth was found among women with secondary amine intake and > 25 mg/L nitrate concentrations [adjusted hazard ratio 3.11 (95% CI, 1.08–8.94)].ConclusionsThe association between nitrosatable prescription drug intake and the risk of stillbirth may depend on the level of nitrate in household drinking water. Evaluations of the effect of nitrosatable drug intake on perinatal outcomes might consider nitrate exposure from drinking water.

Survey of water supply and assessment of groundwater quality in the suburban communes of Selembao and Kimbanseke, Kinshasa in Democratic Republic of the Congo

In many suburban municipalities of developing countries, the household drinking water comes mainly from groundwater including, wells, streams and springs. These sources are vulnerable because poor hygienic conditions and sanitation prevail causing persistence and recurrent waterborne diseases. In this research, a survey study on water resource use and an epidemiological survey of waterborne diseases were conducted among users of water points and medical institutions in suburban communes of Selembao and Kimbanseke (Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo). In addition, physicochemical (temperature, pH, O2, electrical conductivity, and soluble ions: Na+, K+, PO43−, SO42−, NO3−, NO2−) and bacteriological (FIB: faecal indicator bacteria) analyses of water from 21 wells and springs were performed according to the seasonal variations. FIB included Escherichia coli (E. coli), Enterococcus and Total Coliforms. The survey results indicate that more than 75% of the patients admitted to local medical institutions between 2016 and 2019 are affected by waterborne diseases, including typhoid fever, amoebic dysentery, diarrhoea, gastroenteritis disorders and cholera. Except for NO3− in some sites, the water physicochemical parameter values are within WHO permissible limits for drinking/domestic water quality. On the contrary, the results revealed high FIB levels in water from unmanaged wells and springs during rainy and dry seasons. The microbiological pollution was significantly higher in the rainy season compared to the dry season. Interestingly, no FIB contamination was observed in water samples from managed/developed wells. The results from this study will guide local government decisions on improving water quality to prevent recurrent waterborne diseases.

Bacteriological quality of household drinking water in North Gondar Zone, Ethiopia; a community-based cross-sectional study

Ethiopia is one of the developing countries where only 52% of its population have access to safe drinking water. To determine the level of faecal contamination in drinking water, the E. coli has been found to be the most specific indicator. The purpose of this study was to determine household bacteriological drinking water quality and its associated factors in rural North Gondar Zone Ethiopia. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in rural parts of North Gondar Zone from April to June, 2016. Water samples from water storage at household level were taken using standardized water sampling techniques to determine the level of faecal contamination. Face-to-face interview using structured questionnaires and checklist were used to identify the associated factors. A total of 736 households participated in this study. The prevalence of positive faecal coliform in the households is found to be 72.6% (95%C.I; 69.4–75.8). In multivariate analysis; occupational status [AOR; 0.35, 95%; CI (0.16,0.77)], income [(AOR);0.45, 95%; CI (0.3, 0.68)], type of solid waste disposal habit [AOR; 0.16, 95%; CI (0.36, 0.66)], source of water [AOR; 0.42, 95%; CI (0.28, 0.65)], shortage of water [AOR; 2.8, 95%; CI (1.88, 4)] were variables identified as predictors for faecal coliform contamination of water in the household. There is high level of faecal contamination of household drinking water in North Gondar Zone. Occupational status, income, solid waste disposal habit, sources of drinking water, and shortage of water were predictor for presence of faecal coliform contamination in household drinking water.

Hubungan Antara Penerapan Program Sanitasi Total Berbasis Masyarakat (STBM) dengan Kejadian Diare di Tingkat Rumah Tangga (RT) Studi di Wilayah Kerja Puskesmas Kebasen Kecamatan Kebasen Kabupaten Banyumas

The incidence of diarrhea in the Kebasen Subdistrict is still high. The implementation of the Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) program has not run optimally in the Kebasen Subdistrict area judging by the unfulfilled standard criteria and requirements of the 5 pillars of CLTS.This research focused on observasional analytical study with cross sectional approach. The population in this study was all households in the working area of Kebasen Health Center with a total of 100 households. The sampling technique using proportional random sampling.Data analysis using chi square test.The results showed that 27% of households defecate carelessly, 81% do not apply handwashing with soap, 47% do not manage food and drink safely, 91% do not safely safeguard waste, and 80% do not safely safeguard liquid waste. There is a relationship between the implementation of CLTS in stop open defecation free aspect (p=0,000), handwashingwith soap aspect (p=0.021), household drinking water and food management aspect (p=0.000), and household waste watermanagement aspect (p=0.014) with the occurrence of diarrhea in the working area of Kebasen Health Center. There is no relationship between the implementation of CLTSin household waste management aspect (p=0.471) with the occurrence of diarrhea in the working area of Kebasen Health Center. The incidence of diarrhea in the working area of Kebasen Health Center is influenced by the habit of people who behave defecation carelessly, do not washing hands with soap, unsafe food and beverage management, and the absence of liquid waste security.

Cryptosporidium surrogate removal in five commonly used point-of-use domestic filters

Point-of-use filters are the major means of treating household drinking-water from non-reticulated water supplies, especially in developing communities, but their effectiveness at removing protozoa varies greatly. We custom built a full-scale filter test rig to simulate typical household use conditions (40 psi, 21.6 L water/day treated, intermittent operation), and assessed the efficiencies of five commonly used low-cost household filter cartridges at removing glycoprotein-coated 4.5 μm polystyrene microspheres that had been validated as a surrogate for Cryptosporidium oocysts. The filter cartridges included 1 μm nominal activated carbon, 1 μm nominal polypropylene, 1 μm nominal polyester, 1 μm absolute pleated-paper and 2 μm nominal silver-impregnated carbon. The data from 120 test runs (duplicate filters, 24 replicate runs per filter type) indicated that the surrogate particles' log10 reduction values (LRVs) were 3.93–4.54 in the 1 μm activated carbon filters, 1.95–2.94 in the 2 μm silver-impregnated carbon filters, and <1.0 in the 1 μm polypropylene, 1 μm polyester and 1 μm pleated-paper filters. To achieve an LRV >3, which is a requirement of domestic drinking-water treatment units for protozoan reduction, 1 μm activated carbon filters are recommended. To satisfy protozoan removal requirements when using the other four filter types tested, additional treatment, for example, water boiling or ultraviolet disinfection, is necessary.

Evaluation of a Household Drinking Water Purification System Performance in terms of Organic – Inorganic Water Pollution Indicators and Ecological – Health Risk Assessment Indices

In this study, the performance of one of the most popular household drinking water purification systems (WPS) of Turkey was evaluated. Tap and purified water samples were taken from İpsala District (Thrace Region). A total of 23 significant water quality assessment parameters including essential and toxic metals (pH, TDS, EC, turbidity, Cl, NO3, SO4, PO4, BOD, COD, B, Al, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Sr, Mo, Sb, Ba, Pb) were measured in water samples and how much the WPS improves these parameters were determined. Also Water Quality Index (WQI), Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI), Heavy Metal Evaluation Index (HEI), Nutrient Pollution Index (NPI), Cancer Risk (CR), Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Hazard Index (HI) were applied to data in order to assess the qualities of tap and purified water in terms of multiple effects of toxicants and possible risks of human health. As a result of this research, it was determined that the investigated WPS significantly improved the drinking water quality and significantly reduced the scores of applied ecological and health risk assessment indicators.

English

English

The Role of Hygiene and Sanitation to the Escherichia coli Contamination in Drinking Water in Depok City, Indonesia

BACKGROUND: Drinking water is a vital aspect in human life. The quality of drinking water should be monitored to ensure public from any health effects caused by contaminated water. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is one of the indicators of fecal contamination should not be present in drinking water (0 cfu/100 ml). However, poor hygiene and sanitation contributes to E. coli contamination in drinking water, particularly in developing countries. AIM: We investigated the household hygiene and sanitation factors and the relationship with E. coli detection in the household drinking water. METHODS: A cross-sectional study design was conducted to collect the data from three districts in the Depok city, that is, Sawangan, Bojongsari, and Cipayung. A total of 300 houses and the corresponding drinking water samples were collected during August–September 2019. E. coli was determined as microbiological indicator using total plate count method. RESULTS: The results showed that E. coli was detected in 174 (58%) of household water samples. The water container condition (OR = 2,60; CI 95%: 1.18–5.71) and the hand washing practice with soap (OR = 1,65; CI 95%: 1.04–2.62) were significantly correlated with the presence of E. coli in the water samples. CONCLUSIONS: The condition of the water container was the most dominant factors which contributed to E. coli content in the household drinking water.

Adapting a safe water storage container to improve household stored water quality in rural Burkina Faso: a cluster randomized trial

AbstractSafe water storage protects household drinking water from microbial contamination, maintaining water quality and preventing diarrhea and other water-borne diseases. However, achieving high adoption and sustained use of safe storage is challenging. Systematic adaptation can address these challenges by improving contextual fit while retaining core functionality to protect water quality. We applied Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycles to systematically adapt a safe water storage container (SWSC) intervention for implementation in rural Burkina Faso. This study describes the adaptation process and the impacts of the SWSC on Escherichia coli contamination in household stored water in a cluster-randomized trial with 49 intervention villages (274 households) and 50 no-intervention control villages (290 households). SWSC adoption among intervention households was high (88.9%). The intervention achieved approximately a 0.4 log reduction in E. coli contamination. Intervention impact was likely moderated by differential changes in improved source use across intervention and control households. Safe storage improves water quality when used consistently. PDSA frameworks can guide the adaptation of safe storage interventions to optimize adoption and sustained use in new contexts while preserving core functions that protect water quality.

Impact of Tourist Behavior on the Discharge of Sunscreen Contamination in Aquatic Parks, Sinkholes, and Beaches of the Mexican Caribbean

The Mexican Caribbean is part of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System, considered the second largest reef system globally. This system, as well as inland aquatic ecosystems, are at risk of contamination due to the intensive use of sunscreen by the tourists who visit the Riviera Maya each year. At present, the regulation and management of sunscreens are inconsistent, with most policies and legislation focused on the protected marine areas with little current focus on inland aquatic ecosystems. An estimated 229.76 tons of sunscreen are used annually, with residues putting the health of the marine and freshwater aquatic ecosystems and residents at risk. Groundwater is used recreationally (e.g., tourists swimming in sinkholes or cenotes) and as household drinking water. To understand the environmental impacts of sunscreen use and the management implications, a mixed-methods study was carried out, combining survey and interview data on how tourists use sunscreen and their perceptions of discharge of sunscreens into the water, with analysis of regional, national and international policies and legislation. Our findings of touristic behaviors, gaps in current legislation, and the pollution implications of different sunscreen types provide useful information for future decision-making and the creation of stronger environmental regulations.

Re-examining the effects of drought on intimate-partner violence.

Droughts are associated with several societal ills, especially in developing economies that rely on rainfed agriculture. Recently, researchers have begun to examine the effect of droughts on the risk of Intimate-Partner Violence (IPV), but so far this work has led to inconclusive results. For example, two large recent studies analyzed comparable data from multiple sub-Saharan African countries and drew opposite conclusions. We attempt to resolve this apparent paradox by replicating previous analyses with the largest data set yet assembled to study drought and IPV. Integrating the methods of previous studies and taking particular care to control for spatial autocorrelation, we find little association between drought and most forms of IPV, although we do find evidence of associations between drought and women's partners exhibiting controlling behaviors. Moreover, we do not find significant heterogeneous effects based on wealth, employment, household drinking water sources, or urban-rural locality.