Contamination Of Drinking Water Research Articles

Spatial variability of nitrate leaching and risk assessment of nitrate contamination in the Ghiss-Nekor alluvial aquifer system (Northeastern Morocco) through Disjunctive Kriging

In this study, groundwater nitrate monitoring data from water supply and water management organizations were processed in a GIS environment to evaluate spatial patterns of nitrate occurrence and explore its correlation with the corresponding land uses in Ghiss-Nekor alluvial groundwater (northeastern Morocco). Land-use/Land Cover within the Ghiss-Nekor plain incorporated rangeland, built area, crop fields, water bodies, dense vegetation, and bare ground categories, encompassing respectively about 39.06 %, 36.69 %, 17.57 %, 4.63 %, 1.24 %, and 0.81 % of the total area. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the selected thresholds are an acceptable concentration of nitrate for potable water (50 mg/L) and a human affected value (13 mg/L). Simple Kriging and Disjunctive Kriging (D.K.) geostatistical methods were compared with a deterministic interpolation method (GPI) to identify the convenient approach to predict nitrate concentrations at unsampled sites. D.K. provided more accurate predictive performance and highlighted that nitrate contamination is higher in wells in the southern half of the study area, where nitrate concentrations exceeded 50 mg/L in 29.2 % (33,3 km²) of the study area. Areas occupying 21.28 % of the total surface, with nitrate contents exceeding the human-affected value, are located near small industrial sites, residential septic tanks, and agricultural areas. No significant correlation was found between the nitrate concentrations and the depth of the wells. The probability of nitrate content exceeding the thresholds of 13 and 50 mg/L is respectively less than 0.5 in 61.35 % (69.94 km²) and 77.63 % (88.4 km²) of the total study area, whereas the maximum likelihood of nitrate contamination is found along uncontrolled urban discharges located within highly permeable deposits. The assessment also demonstrated that areas showing high predicted probabilities of nitrate contamination diminish with increasing threshold value. The present study shed light on the necessity of depicting the extent of polluted areas, particularly in vulnerable alluvial aquifers, where exposure to higher levels of drinking water contaminants threatens human health.

ZnO Precursor’s ability to catalyze formation of reactive oxygen species to degrade aqueous organic pollutants

Advanced oxidative processes (AOP) could mitigate emerging and persistent pollutants in drinking water. Yet there is a dearth of economical materials to generate the reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are responsible for pollutant degradation in AOPs. In this work, we design a zinc hydroxychloride monohydrate (ZHCM) silicon dioxide photocatalytic nanocomposite to generate ROS for non-selective degradation of drinking water contaminants. ZHCM is an intermediate phase in the sol–gel synthesis of ZnO-SiO2-Ag nanocomposites containing 63–100 % ZnO. Typically, ZHCM is calcinated around 500 °C to crystallize into ZnO, yet we find that this calcination step may decrease photocatalytic activity. ZHCM exhibited higher methylene blue degradation efficiency through both catalysis (31 % after 4 h) and photocatalysis (98 % after 4 h) compared to the ZnO composites (∼0% and 78 % after 4 h). ZHCM had the highest photodegradation efficiency for ciprofloxacin and caffeine. The increased catalytic and photocatalytic activity of these model pollutants is attributed to the generation of two ROS: superoxide anions in UV light and peroxide anions in the absence of light. These ROS were identified using a new modified biological assay measuring the chemiluminescence of luminol in the presence of horseradish peroxidase. Results are further verified via scavenger quenching tests. The ZHCM and ZnO-SiO2-Ag are characterized for their antimicrobial activity measured by E. coli growth inhibition zones, band gaps, crystalline domains, and surface areas. This work demonstrates the potential to synthesize, at lower temperatures, a photocatalyst with enhanced ROS generation and reduced UV dependency.

Efficient PFOA removal from drinking water by a dual-functional mixed-matrix-composite nanofiltration membrane

Drinking water contamination by per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) is a global concern. Nanofiltration is a promising PFAS removal technology due to its scalability and cost-effectiveness. However, nanofiltration cannot typically reduce PFAS concentrations below current drinking water recommendations. To enhance PFAS removal, we developed mixed-matrix-composite nanofiltration (MMCNF) membranes—an active nanofiltration layer on porous adsorptive support that synergetically combines filtration and adsorption. We synthesized MMCNF membranes comprising thin polyelectrolyte multilayer films deposited on thick (~400 µm) polyethersulfone supports incorporating β-cyclodextrin microparticles. These membranes achieved near complete removal (>99.9%) of model PFAS (PFOA: perfluorooctanoic acid) for significantly longer filtration times compared to a control membrane without β-cyclodextrin, but otherwise identical. The spent MMCNF membrane was regenerated using ethanol, and high PFOA removal performance was regained during three filtration cycles. Perfluorooctanoic acid was concentrated 38-fold in the ethanol eluent. Further concentration by evaporation is straightforward and can enable eluent recycling and effective PFAS removal.

A comprehensive survey and analysis of international drinking water regulations for inorganic chemicals with comparisons to the World Health Organization's drinking-water guidelines.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has published criteria for determining the quality of drinking water since 1958. Since 1984, these criteria were termed "guidelines" to emphasize that they are not national standards, but rather guidelines for nations to develop their own national standards, which may take into account local environmental, social, economic, and cultural conditions. When calculating guideline values (GVs), the WHO reviews the toxicological literature, calculates a health-based value (HBV), and determines whether the HBV should be adopted as a GV. The WHO also considers aesthetic aspects of drinking water quality, such as taste and the staining of plumbing fixtures, and additionally supplies aesthetic values (AVs) for certain drinking water contaminants. There is no central registry for national drinking water standards, so the degree of variation of national drinking water standards is not known. We examined standards, guidelines, and background documents for all inorganic contaminants published by the WHO from 1958-2022. We also searched for national drinking water standards for all independent countries. We found the WHO currently has 16 GVs, six HBVs without GVs, and six AVs without HBVs or GVs for inorganic drinking water contaminants, excluding disinfection agents and their byproducts. More than half of the point of departure studies used to support these values were published in 2005 or earlier. Ninety-eight percent of the world's population lives in jurisdictions with drinking water standards, and 14 countries directly link their national standards to the current WHO's drinking water guidelines. Lack of transparency (standards available only through purchase) and typographical errors are common problems, especially for resource-limited countries. The WHO drinking water guidelines are crucially important for drinking water safety; they are used for guidance or as official standards throughout the world. It is crucial that they be based on the best available science.

Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services and drinking water contamination risk levels in households of Bishoftu Town, Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study.

Access to safe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene is a fundamental human right and essential to control infectious diseases. However, many countries, including Ethiopia, do not have adequate data to report on basic water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services. Although contaminated drinking water spreads diseases like cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, and dysentery, studies on drinking water contamination risk levels in households are limited in Ethiopia. Therefore, closing this gap needs investigation. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted. A total of 5350 households were included. A systematic, simple random sampling technique was used to select the participants. The information was gathered through in-person interviews using a standardized questionnaire. Furthermore, 1070 drinking water samples were collected from household water storage. This investigation revealed that 9.8%, 83.9%, and 4.9% of households used limited, basic, and safely managed drinking water services, respectively. Besides, 10.2%, 15.7% and 59.3% of households used safely managed, basic and limited sanitation services, respectively. Yet, 10.6% and 4.2% of households used unimproved sanitation facilities and open defecation practices. Also, 40.5% and 19.4% of households used limited and basic hygiene services. On the other hand, 40.1% of households lacked functional handwashing facilities. In this study, 12.1%, 26.3%, and 42% of households' drinking water samples were positive for Escherichia coli, fecal coliforms, and total coliforms, respectively. Also, 5.1% and 4.5% of households' drinking water samples had very high and high contamination risk levels for E. coli, respectively. We found that 2.5% and 11.5% of households and water distributors had unacceptable fluoride concentrations, respectively. The majority of households in Bishoftu town lack access to safely managed sanitation, drinking water, and basic hygiene services. Many households' water samples had very high and high health risk levels. Hence, the government and partner organizations should implement water and sanitation safety plans.

Factors influencing microplastic contamination in bottled drinking water in Indonesia: a systematic review

Factors influencing microplastic contamination in bottled drinking water in Indonesia: a systematic review

Escherichia coli as Microbiological Quality Water Indicator:A High Importance for Human and Animal Health

The purpose of this review is to demonstrate the importance of monitoring microbiological quality in water for animals and humans, which relies primarily on coliforms, mostly Escherichia coli. Fecal coliforms, such as E. coli, are more specific indicators of fecal pollution. A fecal contamination detection can be performed not just in drinking water, but also in the environment. As a result of improved detection methods for E. coli, drinking water is becoming more reliable as a result of the use of E. coli as an indicator of fecal pollution. Drinking water contamination by feces is currently best detected by E. coli. Accordingly, temperate environments are more likely to have fecal coliforms than tropical environments, human and animal feces have high levels of E. coli in comparison to other fecal coliforms, and E. coli detection methods are more affordable, fast, sensitive, specific, and easy to use than other fecal coliforms.

Diversifying Large-Scale Participatory Science: The Efficacy of Engagement through Facilitator Organizations

Large-scale, scientist-led, participatory science (citizen science) projects often engage participants who are primarily white, wealthy, and well-educated. Calls to diversify contributory projects are increasingly common, but little research has evaluated the efficacy of suggested strategies for diversification. We engaged participants in Crowd the Tap through facilitator organizations like historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs), predominantly white institutions, high school science classrooms, and corporate volunteer programs. Crowd the Tap is a contributory project focused on identifying and addressing lead (Pb) contamination in household drinking water in the United States. We investigated how participant diversity with respects to race, ethnicity, and homeownership (a proxy for income) differed between participation facilitated through a partner organization and unfacilitated participation in which participants came to the project independently. We were also interested in which facilitators were most effective at increasing participant diversity. White and wealthy participants were overrepresented in unfacilitated participation. Facilitation helped increase engagement of people of color, especially Black and lower-income households. High schools were particularly effective at engaging Hispanic or Latinx participants, and HBCUs were important for engaging Black households. Ultimately, our results suggest that engagement through facilitator organizations may be an effective means of engaging diverse participants in large-scale projects. Our results have important implications for the field of participatory science as we seek to identify evidence-based strategies for diversifying project participants.

Comparison of circulating and excreted metals and of autoimmunity between two Great Plains Tribal communities

Metals contaminants of the environment from mine waste have been implicated as contributing agents in autoimmune disease. The current study compares metals and autoimmunity in two Tribal communities residing in the Black Hills and the Bighorn Mountains geographical regions that are scattered with extant hard rock mines. With documented drinking water contamination in both communities, in vivo levels of more than half of the measured serum and urine metals differed between the two communities and were substantially different from their national median values. Serum autoantibodies associated with systemic autoimmune disease were rare or at low-level, but antibodies to denatured (single-stranded) DNA and thyroid-specific autoantibodies were commonly elevated, especially in women. A three-tier statistical modeling process was carried out to examine individual metals exposure as predictors of autoantibody levels. For the most part only weak positive associations between individual metals and systemic autoantibodies were found, although univariate quantile regression analysis showed positive statistical associations of serum lead and antimony with anti-chromatin and anti-histone autoantibodies. Using age and gender-adjusted multivariable statistical models, metals did not predict anti-thyroglobulin or -thyroid peroxidase significantly and metals were generally negative predictors of the other autoantibodies. Overall these results suggest that elevated levels of environmental metals and metalloids in these communities may result in suppression of autoantibodies associated with systemic autoimmune disease.

Comprehensive health risk analysis of heavy metal pollution using water quality indices and Monte Carlo simulation in R software

Rapid urbanization, population growth, agricultural practices, and industrial activities have led to widespread groundwater contamination. This study evaluated heavy metal contamination in residential drinking water in Shiraz, Iran (2021). The analysis involved 80 groundwater samples collected across wet and dry seasons. Water quality was comprehensively assessed using several indices, including the heavy metals evaluation index (HEI), heavy metal pollution index (HPI), contamination degree (CD), and metal index (MI). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessments were conducted using deterministic and probabilistic approaches for exposed populations. In the non-carcinogenic risk assessment, the chronic daily intake (CDI), hazard quotient (HQ), and hazard index (HI) are employed. The precision of risk assessment was bolstered through the utilization of Monte Carlo simulation, executed using the R software platform. Based on the results, in both wet and dry seasons, Zinc (Zn) consistently demonstrates the highest mean concentration, followed by Manganese (Mn) and Chromium (Cr). During the wet and dry seasons, 25% and 40% of the regions exhibited high CD, respectively. According to non-carcinogenic risk assessment, Cr presents the highest CDI and HQ in children and adults, followed by Mn, As and HI values, indicating elevated risk for children. The highest carcinogenic risk was for Cr in adults, while the lowest was for Cd in children. The sensitivity analysis found that heavy metal concentration and ingestion rate significantly impact both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks. These findings provide critical insights for shaping policy and allocating resources towards effectively managing heavy metal contamination in residential drinking water.

Factors Affecting Biofilms Formation in Drinking Water Distribution Systems

This article discusses the importance of microbiological safety in drinking water and the challenges drinking water treatment plants face in delivering a safe product. Biofilms, thin layers of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces and produce a slimy matrix of extracellular polymeric substances, can potentially cause health risks in drinking water if they contain harmful microorganisms. The article highlights the need for proper maintenance of the drinking water distribution system and regular testing for the presence of harmful microorganisms and other contaminants to minimize the risk of illness from biofilms. The study focuses on insufficient research on biofilms in drinking water distribution systems in Sulaimani City. It provides new and relevant information on the public health problems associated with their presence and describes current and emergent strategies for their control. The microbiological and Physio Chemical experiments were conducted on water samples from various water drinking sources in Sulaimani City to evaluate contamination of portable drinking water. Then, Most Probable Number (MPN) and Membrane Filtration methods were applied to collected water samples for the determination and presence of coliform bacteria in water. Moreover, Swab biofilm was employed within a different agar and distributed by an L shape. After that, 13 different physio-chemical tests were conducted on the previous experiments. Enterobacteriaceae had a moderately negative correlation (-0.764) with temperature and was statistically significant (Sig. = 0.000). Moreover, it was moderately positively correlated (0.416) with Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and statistically significant (Sig. = 0.038).

Transport of Ba, Sr, Cd, Pb, and As in dolomite saline aquifers injected with petroleum produced water

Predicting the transport of toxic metals in dolomite saline aquifers where petroleum produced water (PW) is commonly injected is important to prevent underground sources of drinking water contamination. This study presents new experimental results on the degree and impact of precipitation and sorption reactions on the transport of high concentrations of toxic metals (80-100 mg-Ba/L, 80-100 mg-Sr/L, 70-100 mg-Cd/L, 2-100 mg-Pb/L, and 80-100 mg-As/L) in dolomite injected with PW of variable alkalinity (0–200 mg/L), total dissolved solids (1700–77,000 mg/L), and pH (2–7). Changes in the elemental and mineral composition of dolomite surface were measured by BSEs SEM, SEM-EDS, and high-resolution XRD analyses. The results reveal a key role of alkalinity generated from the dissolution of dolomite. We show that a short initial stage where the removal of toxic metals is driven by the initial pH and alkalinity of PW is followed by a prolonged stage where the removal of toxic metals by sorption and precipitation reactions is driven by the alkalinity and pH that results from the kinetic dissolution of dolomite. Precipitated/coprecipitated metals were carbonate minerals reflecting the metal composition of PW. Attained removal levels of tested toxic metals from 1 L of PW using a dolomite core made of 200 g were >90% for Pb, >50% for As, >30% for Cd, and >5% for Ba and Sr. Apparently, the in-situ generation of alkalinity (carbonate ions) and sorption reactions of metals on dolomite catalyzes the precipitation of toxic metals as carbonate minerals. This catalytic effect of dolomite is different with PW and fresh water (FW) of low salinity (NaCl). Precipitation reactions are more prominent with FW than with PW, whereas sorption reactions are more prominent with PW than with FW.

Hazard vs. exposure: Does it make a difference in identifying chemicals with persistence and mobility concerns?

Persistent and mobile (PM) chemicals are considered emerging threats to the environment and drinking water because they can be transported over long distances, penetrate natural and artificial barriers, and resist removal by traditional water treatment procedures. Current chemical regulatory frameworks raise concerns over PM chemicals due to their potential to cause high human exposure through drinking water contamination. However, the criteria used to screen and identify these chemicals often rely on hazard properties related to stability and sorption, such as biodegradation half-lives and organic-carbon-normalized sorption coefficients as respective measures of P and M. Here, we conduct a model-based assessment to examine the consistency between hazard-based and exposure-based approaches in assessing PM chemicals, by evaluating whether chemicals identified as highly P and M are consistently associated with high drinking water exposure potential (DWEP). We discover that chemicals with the top DWEPs tend to be PM chemicals, but the reverse is not always true, because DWEPs are also impacted by volatilization for air-distributed chemicals and advective particle-bound transport for particle-bound chemicals. Our findings suggest that the hazard metrics are better suited for de-prioritizing, as opposed to prioritizing, chemicals that are unlikely to result in significant human exposure through drinking water, as unfavorable values of hazard metrics are a necessary but not sufficient condition for a high DWEP. We also find that distinct mechanisms determine the DWEP in different sources of drinking water: Sorption and stability are more influential on the DWEP of chemicals in groundwater and surface water, respectively, whereas both sorption and stability equally impact water undergoing riverbank filtration. Future studies should focus on optimizing the identification of persistent and mobile chemicals to ensure that exposure potential is taken into consideration.

The impact of wastewater-irrigated urban agriculture on microbial quality of drinking water at household level in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Wastewater irrigation may reintroduce fecal pathogens to households and cause drinking water contamination. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of wastewater irrigation on the quality of drinking water among wastewater-irrigating urban farming households. Drinking water samples from 52 households of farming communities in 19 sampling sites were collected twice at PoS and PoC. The microbial quality of the water was assessed using E. coli counted by membrane filtration. Samples collected from exposed households at PoC were 100% positive for E. coli with mean E. coli at PoC increased 10× from the PoS and 3× higher compared to PoC in the unexposed households. The absence of hand washing water (ATE = 8.14), water storing (ATE = 7.75) and intermittent water supply (ATE = 6.25) were significant factors for the increased E. coli at PoC. Breaking the path of the pathogens from the farm to the house and from PoS to PoC needsintervention.

Diversity and epidemiological profile of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from drinking water in Brazil genotyped using multi-locus sequence typing.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a Gram-negative bacillus associated with waterborne diseases. The objective of this study was to determine whether particular P. aeruginosa sequence types (STs) were associated with drinking water contamination in Brazil. This was achieved by searching the Pseudomonas PubMLST database, which contains the records for 8358 strains collected between 1938 and 2023. The majority (97.2%) had the complete 7-loci multilocus sequence typing profile and were assigned to 3486 STs. After eBURST (an algorithm used to infer patterns of evolutionary descent among clusters), 1219 groups with single-locus variant and 575 groups with double-locus variant were formed. Brazil was the South American country with the most isolates (n=219, 58.24%), and the Simpson's index was 0.9392. Of the 219 Brazilian isolates, eight were isolated in water and identified as STs 252, 1417, 1605, 2502, 2620, 3078, and 3312. ST252, 1417, and 3078 have already been isolated from clinical cases worldwide. Furthermore, ST1605 and 2620, after the eBURST, they were grouped in the same clonal complex as STs involved in human infections. In conclusion, P. aeruginosa STs involved in human infections were found in bottled drinking water commercialized in Brazil, revealing that these types of drinking waters can be a vehicle of contamination.

Race, Racism, and Drinking Water Contamination Risk From Oil and Gas Wells in Los Angeles County, 2020.

Objectives. To evaluate the potential for drinking water contamination in Los Angeles (LA) County, California, based on the proximity of supply wells to oil and gas wells, and characterize risk with respect to race/ethnicity and measures of structural racism. Methods. We identified at-risk community water systems (CWSs) as those with supply wells within 1 kilometer of an oil or gas well. We characterized sociodemographics of the populations served by each CWS by using the 2013-2017 American Community Survey. We estimated the degree of redlining in each CWS service area by using 1930s Home Owners' Loan Corporation security maps, and characterized segregation by using the Index of Concentration at the Extremes. Multivariable regression models estimated associations between these variables and CWS contamination risk. Results. A quarter of LA County CWSs serving more than 7 million residents have supply wells within 1 kilometer of an oil or gas well. Higher percentages of Hispanic, Black, and Asian/Pacific Islander residents and a greater degree of redlining and residential segregation were associated with higher contamination risk. Conclusions. Redlining and segregation predict drinking water contamination risks from oil development in LA County, with people of color at greater risk. (Am J Public Health. 2023;113(11):1191-1200. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307374).

How Data Gaps in Rulemaking Affect Water Affordability

Key TakeawaysWater affordability is a critical issue for many households, especially those in smaller communities with relatively high per‐household treatment costs compared with larger systems.New regulations can increase utility costs, exacerbating affordability issues; small systems and their customers may have difficulty paying to accommodate these new rules.Significant data gaps show that the water industry needs more—and more accurate—data related to managing drinking water contaminants and paying for infrastructure improvements.A 2021 study explored analyses that could help regulators better understand and address affordability challenges.

Developing machine learning approaches to identify candidate persistent, mobile and toxic (PMT) and very persistent and very mobile (vPvM) substances based on molecular structure

Determining which substances on the global market could be classified as persistent, mobile and toxic (PMT) substances or very persistent, very mobile (vPvM) substances is essential to prevent or reduce drinking water contamination from them. This study developed machine learning models based on different molecular descriptors (MDs) and defined applicability domains for the screening of PMT/vPvM substances. The models were trained with 3111 substances with expert weight-of-evidence based PMT/vPvM hazard classifications that considered the highest quality data available. The model was based on the hypothesis that PMT/vPvM substances contain similar MDs, representative of chemical structures resistant to degradation, be associated with low sorption (or high-water solubility) and in some cases be associated with known toxic mechanisms. All possible model combinations were tested by integrating different molecular description methods, data balancing strategies and machine learning algorithms. Our model allows one-step prediction of candidate PMT/vPvM substances, and our method was compared with the approach predicting P, M and T separately (i.e. three-step prediction). The results showed that the one-step model achieved a higher accuracy of 92% for PMT/vPvM identification (i.e. positive samples) for an internal test set, and also resulted in a higher accuracy of 90% for an external test set of chemical pollutants detected in Taihu Lake, China. Furthermore, prediction mechanism of the model was interpreted by Shapley additive explanations (SHAP). This work presents an advance of big data in silico screening models for the identification of substances that potentially meet the PMT/vPvM criteria.

Biologic quality of households' drinking-water in an urban local government area of Oyo State, Southwest, Nigeria

Background: Inadequate access to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) facilities is a global public health issue with several associated illnesses, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. It is imperative to understand the availabilities of these facilities, to provide baseline data for policy design and implementation. This study assessed access to WASH facilities. It also examined the factors associated with drinking-water contamination by coliform organisms in households within Ogbomoso North Local Government Area, Oyo-State, Nigeria.
 Methods: Cross-sectional design was employed and a two-stage cluster-sampling method was used to recruit eligible respondents from 100 households. Interviewer-administer, semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data. Chi-square test and binary logistic regression were used for inferential statistics.
 Results: Mean age of respondents was 40.5±16.7years, 81.0% of the households practiced open defecation, and 78.9% of those with toilet facilities used pit latrines. The most common water source was borehole (71.6%); available within 5 minutes walking distance to residence of 68.0% of study participants. Sixty-three percent of the households had high drinking water coliform counts. High drinking-water coliform counts were influenced by the presence or absence of toilets facilities (OR=4.61, CI=1.22-1.68), types of toilets (OR=2.63, CI=3.22-5.34), and water sources (OR=0.12, CI=0.47-0.68).
 Conclusion: Access to good quality water and basic sanitation facilities is sub-optimal in the study setting despite being an urban community. Authors advocate for more vibrant and intentional government efforts at ensuring equitable access to WASH facilities in the Nigerian communities. This is to fast-track the nation's journey towards the actualization of the sustainable development goal (SDG)-6.

A Review on Pollutants Found in Drinking Water in Sub-Sahara African Rural Communities: Detection and Potential Low-cost Remediation Methods

Water is the most essential substance that supports various life mechanisms. It is a fundamental and necessary requirement for mankind and all other living creatures on the planet. Therefore, daily drinking water should be clean, readily available, sufficient, and free from harmful substances. However, in many rural areas, most sources of drinking water are assumed to be safe for human consumption, but this is not always the case. This work aims to provide a review of pollutants found in the drinking water of Sub-Saharan rural communities and explore potential low-cost remediation methods. The assessment of water pollutants and their remediation methods has been the primary focus of research for several years. Additionally, the World Health Organisation has established various minimum standards regarding the concentration of common pollutants in water. This review presents the major sources of water, the origin of contaminants, the different types of pollutants, and remediation methods to enhance the current knowledge in the field of rural drinking water contaminants.