Dream Recall Research Articles

The effect of preoperative suggestions on perioperative dreams and dream recalls after administration of different general anesthetic combinations: a randomized trial in maxillofacial surgery.

BackgroundImages evoked immediately before the induction of anesthesia with the help of suggestions may influence dreaming during anesthesia.The aim of the study was to assess the incidence of evoked dreams and dream recalls by employing suggestions before induction of anesthesia while administering different general anesthetic combinations.MethodsThis is a single center, prospective randomized including 270 adult patients scheduled for maxillofacial surgical interventions. Patients were assigned to control, suggestion and dreamfilm groups according to the psychological method used. According to the anesthetic protocol there were also three subgroups: etomidate & sevoflurane, propofol & sevoflurane, propofol & propofol groups. Primary outcome measure was the incidence of postoperative dreams in the non-intervention group and in the three groups receiving different psychological interventions. Secondary endpoint was to test the effect of perioperative suggestions and dreamfilm-formation training on the occurrance of dreams and recallable dreams in different general anesthesiological techniques.ResultsDream incidence rates measured in the control group did not differ significantly (etomidate & sevoflurane: 40%, propofol & sevoflurane: 26%, propofol & propofol: 39%). A significant increase could be observed in the incidence rate of dreams between the control and suggestion groups in the propofol & sevoflurane (26%-52%) group (p = 0.023). There was a significant difference in the incidence of dreams between the control and dreamfilm subgroup in the propofol & sevoflurane (26% vs. 57%), and in the propofol & propofol group (39% vs.70%) (p = 0.010, and p = 0.009, respectively). Similar to this, there was a significant difference in dream incidence between the dreamfilm and the suggestion subgroups (44% vs. 70%) in the propofol & propofol group (p = 0.019). Propofol as an induction agent contributed most to dream formation and recalls (χ2-test p value: 0.005). The content of images and dreams evoked using suggestions showed great agreement using all three anesthetic protocols.ConclusionThe psychological method influenced dreaming during anesthesia. The increase of the incidence rate of dreams was dependent on the anesthetic agent used, especially the induction agent.The study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov. Identifier: NCT01839201.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2253-15-11) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Mannheim Dream questionnaire (MADRE): Retest reliability, age and gender effects

Summary. Although dreaming is a genuinely subjective experience occurring in the inner world of the person while sleeping there are quite a few aspects regarding dreaming that are worth being measured and investigated. Over the years several dream questionnaires have been developed but not often used very widely. The present questionnaire was designed to elicit some form of dream history including dream recall, nightmares, lucid dreaming, attitude towards dreams, and the effects of dreams on waking life. Using an online questionnaire, a retest study was performed. The findings regarding the psychometric properties of the MADRE questionnaire seem very promising. One of the next steps will be to evaluate the English version of the MADRE and its application in different samples (e.g., nightmare sufferers, patients with sleep disorders and/or mental disorders) and different contexts (e.g., personality research) by research groups all over the world would be the best way to demonstrate the usefulness of this comprehensive dream questionnaire.

Overnight improvements in two REM sleep-sensitive tasks are associated with both REM and NREM sleep changes, sleep spindle features, and awakenings for dream recall

Memory consolidation is associated with sleep physiology but the contribution of specific sleep stages remains controversial. To clarify the contribution of REM sleep, participants were administered two REM sleep-sensitive tasks to determine if associated changes occurred only in REM sleep. Twenty-two participants (7 men) were administered the Corsi Block Tapping and Tower of Hanoi tasks prior to and again after a night of sleep. Task improvers and non-improvers were compared for sleep structure, sleep spindles, and dream recall. Control participants (N=15) completed the tasks twice during the day without intervening sleep. Overnight Corsi Block improvement was associated with more REM sleep whereas Tower of Hanoi improvement was associated with more N2 sleep. Corsi Block improvement correlated positively with %REM sleep and Tower of Hanoi improvement with %N2 sleep. Post-hoc analyses suggest Tower of Hanoi effects—but not Corsi Block effects—are due to trait differences. Sleep spindle density was associated with Tower of Hanoi improvement whereas spindle amplitude correlated with Corsi Block improvement. Number of REM awakenings for dream reporting (but not dream recall per se) was associated with Corsi Block, but not Tower of Hanoi, improvement but was confounded with REM sleep time. This non-replication of one of 2 REM-sensitive task effects challenges both ‘dual-process’ and ‘sequential’ or ‘sleep organization’ models of sleep-dependent learning and points rather to capacity limitations on REM sleep. Experimental awakenings for sampling dream mentation may not perturb sleep-dependent learning effects; they may even enhance them.

Correlates of Dream Recall: Implications for Confabulation

This investigation aimed to characterize the personality profile of dream-recallers using a psychometrically-validated measure of dream remembering (the MED-Q) (Horton & Conway, 2009), and considered these relationships in terms of confabulation: the tendency to confuse reality with imaginings and thus create false memories. In Experiment 1, 221 participants completed the MED-Q and a battery of personality measures online. The MED-Q significantly correlated with personality dimensions such as openness, thin boundaries, and fantasy-proneness, reinforcing previous findings. Experiment 2 involved participants ( N = 45) recalling a previously-read story, providing measures of true recall and confabulation. A significant relationship was found between the MED-Q (“Awareness of dreaming” factor) and confabulation, but not with other memory scores. Thus, the personality profile described in Experiment 1 gives rise to a tendency to confabulate, reflect upon or rehearse personal memories, as opposed to improving the recall of autobiographical memories, which in turn may lead to an increased awareness of dreaming (Experiment 2). This not only reinforces the overlap between dreaming and constructive autobiographical memory processes, but also acts as a warning to interpret freely recalled dreams with substantial caution.

The effect of external stimuli on dreams, as assessed using Q-methodology

Dreams can sometimes incorporate external sensory stimuli (e.g. sounds, smells and physical sensations) into their course and content, either directly or indirectly. This shows that the brain is still able to monitor, process, and perceive what is happening in the surrounding environment during sleep. This study, considered a pilot study due to only a small number of participants, aimed to examine stimulus incorporation in dreams using two auditory stimuli of different languages - one semantically meaningful to participants and one non-meaningful. We hypothesised that participants exposed to the semantically meaningful language would all report similar experiences to each other, and different from those exposed to the non-meaningful language. All participants first spent several weeks improving their dream recall abilities, and then came to the Sleep and Cognition Laboratory at the University of Lincoln for a two hour morning nap, during which a stimulus was played to them in Rapid-Eye-Movement (REM) sleep. They were awoken shortly after to provide a dream report. All dreams contained conversation or speech of some description, but due to participants poor verbal memory for dream speech, we could not conclusively say that the stimuli were responsible for this effect. There were, however, at least two dreams with strong evidence to suggest that the stimuli were directly incorporated. Q-Methodology was used to assess similarity of dream experience. This resulted in three distinct factors: (1) calm, consistent, slightly emotional dreams; (2) emotional, normal, understandable dreams; and (3) unstable, inconsistent, unrealistic dreams. The configuration of factors amongst participants did not fully meet the predictions of the hypothesis; however, positive participant feedback on Q-sorting their dream experiences gives promise and potential for the use of Q-Methodology in future dream research. Future studies should employ an unstimulated control condition, train participants to improve verbal recall of dream speech, and ultimately, develop a theory of dreaming that includes a plausible explanation of external stimulus incorporation.

Explaining the gender difference in nightmare frequency.

A recent meta-analysis showed a robust gender difference in nightmare frequency of medium effect size in adolescents and young adults: Women tend to report nightmares more frequently than men. The present study, carried out in an unselected student sample, indicates that 2 factors mediate the gender difference in nightmare frequency: neuroticism and overall dream recall frequency. The effect of neuroticism on the gender difference and the finding that the gender difference in nightmare frequency emerges at an age of about 10 years suggest that gender-specific socialization processes may play an important role in explaining the gender differences in nightmare frequency in adolescents and young to middle-aged adults. This idea is supported by the previous finding that nightmare frequency is related to sex role orientation. However, longitudinal studies are necessary to validate these hypotheses.

Factors associated with injury in REM sleep behavior disorder

ObjectiveAs factors associated with injury in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD) remain largely unknown, we aimed to identify such factors. MethodsWe surveyed consecutive idiopathic (iRBD) or symptomatic RBD patients seen between 2008 and 2010 regarding RBD-related injuries. Associations between injuries and clinical variables were determined with odds ratios (OR) and multiple logistic regression analyses. The primary outcome variables were injury and injury severity. ResultsFifty-three patients (40%) responded. Median age was 69 years, and 35 (73.5%) were men. Twenty-eight (55%) had iRBD. Twenty-nine (55%) reported injury, with 37.8% to self and 16.7% to the bed partner. 11.3% had marked injuries requiring medical intervention or hospitalization, including two (4%) subdural hematomas. iRBD diagnosis (OR = 6.8, p = 0.016) and dream recall (OR = 7.5, p = 0.03) were associated with injury; and iRBD diagnosis was independently associated with injury and injury severity adjusting for age, gender, DEB frequency, and duration. Falls (p = 0.03) were also associated with injury severity. DEB frequency was not associated with injury, injury severity, or falls. ConclusionsInjuries appear to be a frequent complication of RBD, although the relatively low response rate in our survey could have biased results. iRBD patients are more likely to suffer injury – and more severe injuries – than symptomatic RBD patients. In addition, recall of dreams was also associated with injury, and dream enactment behavior (DEB)-related falls were associated with more severe injuries. One in nine patients suffered injury requiring medical intervention. The frequency of DEB did not predict RBD-related injuries, highlighting the importance of timely initiation of treatment for RBD in patients having even rare DEB episodes. Future prospective studies will be necessary to define predictors of injury in RBD.

Dreams and Learning

Project Summary: This study is being done to test one aspect of how paying attention to one’s dreams may influence our waking lives. The idea was inspired by research linking the brain processes involved in long-term memory storage to qualities of dreaming, as well as the potential for learning in lucid dreams. It is hypothesized that the more conscious one is of one’s dreams and dream world, the better one will be at learning. In order to test this, the dreaming ability of 300 Cal Poly students will be analyzed via dream questionnaires with the purpose of seeing if any correlation exists between their variation in dreaming and their variation in grade point average (GPA). Dreaming will be assessed in terms of dream recall frequency and dream intensity. Data analysis will be done via three regression analyses, which will be made with respect to (1) dreaming intensity and GPA, (2) dream recall frequency and GPA, and (3) total dream score and GPA. Furthermore, an experimental group (n=25) of students will listen to a weekly dream education podcast as well as keep a daily dream journal for three quarters. A control group (n=25) will listen to weekly podcasts on random topics pertaining to dreams, but with no content about how to better improve their dreaming abilities and will be instructed to keep a journal about daily thoughts and occurrences. Both groups will retake the dream questionnaire and submit their new GPA at the end of each quarter, for a total duration of three quarters. Change in dreaming abilities as well as change in grade point average will be measured via one-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) for each group and each factor (GPA and total dream score). The experiment will cost $500 and will be completed in under a year on campus at California Polytechnic State University in San Luis Obispo, California. The expected results will be used as evidence supporting the implementation of dreaming as a core subject in the nation’s school system.

Diferencias individuales en la frecuencia del recuerdo de sueños exóticos

This study aimed to assess personality traits amongst individuals who remember dreams, on the one hand, and to compare scores obtained in sleep disorder, neuroticism and extroversion, as well as indicators of proneness to schizotypy in individuals who cannot remember dreams, on the other. To this end, dream recall frequency was assessed as including strange, unusual and anomalous/paranormal content. Notably, few studies have explored individual differences in such dreams. A sample of 231 men and women with high (n=57) and low (n=174) scores on dream recall quality was clustered in this study. Three instruments that measure sleep stage and two which measure neuroticism, extroversion and schizotypy were used. The most common exotic dreams were auditory dreams, lucid dreams, recurring dreams, psychic dreams, and dreams associated with deceased persons. In comparison with non-dreamers, dreamers had higher scores for sleep disorder, schizotypal experiences, and hypnagogic/hypnopompic experiences. This study supports the idea that some indicators of proneness to schizotypy are associated with the frequency of exotic dream recall.

Relationship between minimum alveolar concentration and occurrence of dream recall or implicit memory during sevoflurane anesthesia

Relationship between minimum alveolar concentration and occurrence of dream recall or implicit memory during sevoflurane anesthesia

Disturbed dreaming during the third trimester of pregnancy

ObjectiveThe majority of women develop sleep impairments during pregnancy, but alterations in dream experiences remain poorly understood. This study aimed to assess prospectively and comparatively the recall of dreaming and of disturbed dreaming in late pregnancy. MethodsFifty-seven nulliparous, third-trimester pregnant women (mean age±SD, 28.7±4.06years) and 59 non-pregnant controls (mean age±SD, 26.8±4.21years) completed demographics and psychological questionnaires. A 14-day prospective home log assessed sleep and dream characteristics and the Sleep Disorders Questionnaire measured retrospective dream and disturbed dream recall. ResultsEven though pregnant and non-pregnant women showed similar prospective dream recall (P=0.47), pregnant women reported prospectively more bad dreams (P=0.004). More pregnant women (21%) than non-pregnant women (7%) reported a nightmare incidence exceeding moderately severe pathology (>1/week) (P=0.03). Pregnant women also reported overall lower sleep quality (P=0.007) and more night awakenings (P=0.003). Higher prospective recall of bad dreams (r=−0.40, P=0.002) and nightmares (r=−0.32, P=0.001) both correlated with lower sleep quality in pregnant women. ConclusionsLate pregnancy is a period of markedly increased dysphoric dream imagery that may be a major contributor to impaired sleep at this time. Further polysomnographic assessments of pregnant women are needed to clarify relationships between sleep and disturbed dream production in this population.

Factors of Home Dream Recall and Nightmare Frequency in a Non-Student Sample

Home dream recall frequencies and nightmare frequencies show great inter-individual differences. Most of the studies trying to explain these differences, however, studied young participants, so these findings might not be true for persons older than 25 years. The present study investigated the relationship between dream recall, nightmare frequency, age, gender, sleep parameters, stress, and subjective health in a community-based sample ( N = 455) with a mean age of about 55 years. Some of the factors that have been shown to be associated with dream recall and nightmare frequency were also associated with these variables in non-student sample like frequency of nocturnal awakenings, current stress, and tiredness during the day. We were not able to replicate the effect of sex-role orientation on dream recall and nightmare frequency, supporting the idea that age might mediate the effect of daytime variables on dream recall and nightmare frequency. As nightmare frequency was related to sleep quality, stress, health problems, and tiredness during the day, it would be desirable that clinicians include a question about nightmares in their anamneses.

Changes in dream experience in relation with antidepressant escitalopram treatment in depressed female patients: a preliminary study.

Sleep disturbances have long been considered as a cardinal symptom of endogenous depression and dreams in depressed patients usually differ from those of healthy people. The aim of the present study was to investigate dream subjective experiences and their modifications in relation to clinical response in a group of escitalopram-treated depressed patients. Twenty-seven female patients meeting DSM-IV-TR criteria for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and starting SSRI therapy were included in the study. Data about psychopathological status and dreaming subjective experiences were collected at baseline (T0), 4 weeks after the beginning of the treatment (T1) and after further 4 weeks of therapy (T2). At T0 dream experience was impaired and negatively toned. Concomitantly with the decrease of symptoms severity, the 8-week escitalopram treatment yielded to significant improvements in the recall of both quantity and quality of dreams; those patients whit lower clinical benefits kept on reporting impaired dream experiences. The results of the present study evidence how the changes in some specific dreaming characteristics, such as the subjective recall of dream activity, the dream recall quality, the dream emotional content and the dream complexity represent reliable markers of the effectiveness of antidepressant therapy.

Resting brain activity varies with dream recall frequency between subjects.

Dreaming is still poorly understood. Notably, its cerebral underpinning remains unclear. Neuropsychological studies have shown that lesions in the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and/or the white matter of the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) lead to the global cessation of dream reports, suggesting that these regions of the default mode network have key roles in the dreaming process (forebrain 'dream-on' hypothesis). To test this hypothesis, we measured regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) using [(15)O]H2O positron emission tomography in healthy subjects with high and low dream recall frequencies (DRFs) during wakefulness (rest) and sleep (rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, N2, and N3). Compared with Low recallers (0.5 ± 0.3 dream recall per week in average), High recallers (5.2 ± 1.4) showed higher rCBF in the TPJ during REM sleep, N3, and wakefulness, and in the MPFC during REM sleep and wakefulness. We demonstrate that the resting states of High recallers and Low recallers differ during sleep and wakefulness. It coheres with previous ERP results and confirms that a high/low DRF is associated with a specific functional organization of the brain. These results support the forebrain 'dream-on' hypothesis and suggest that TPJ and MPFC are not only involved in dream recall during wakefulness but also have a role in dreaming during sleep (production and/or encoding). Increased activity in the TPJ and MPFC might promote the mental imagery and/or memory encoding of dreams. Notably, increased activity in TPJ might facilitate attention orienting toward external stimuli and promote intrasleep wakefulness, facilitating the encoding of the dreams in memory.

Recalling your dreams won’t make you nervous in the morning

Nightmares are terrifying dreams – sometimes recurring and with drawn out plots – which wake up the sleeper. The CEAD is a useful test for evaluating nightmares which has been specifically designed to measure anxiety upon awakening. The original sample for the CEAD was composed of subjects who recalled a dream at the time of awakening. This could have introduced biases to the results. The first aim is to confirm whether there is a difference in scores obtained on the CEAD between dream recallers and non-recallers. The second aim is analyse the relationship between the CEAD and criteria involved in nightmares (anxiety and fear on awakening, awakening due to dreamed content, recurrence of content and recall quality). 252 Spanish-speaking volunteers were questioned about their awakening that same day. 70 of them were men and 181 were women. The mean age was 39.6 years (Sd = 13.6). 22.2% of participants recalled a dream with several scenes and 9.1% recalled several dreams during the night. 38.9% had no recall. No significant differences were found on the CEAD between recallers and non-recallers, F(1, 175) = .172, p = .679. 9.9% of participants reported that they woke up because of what they were dreaming about. On comparing them with those who awoke for some other reason, no significant differences were found on the CEAD, F(1, 237) = 3.48, p = .063. 17.1% of awakenings were accompanied by fear, anxiety or both. This produced significant differences on the CEAD, F(3, 247) = 4.59, p = .004. 5.6% stated that they had a nightmare and 9.9% were not sure if what they dreamed was a nightmare. There were differences compared to those who had not had a nightmare or did not recall their dream, F(1, 249) = 16.7, p < .0001. 1.6% of participants reported having had a dream which had been repeated on several occasions and in 3.6% it was almost identical to another recalled dream. Recurring dreams also produced differences, F(5, 246) = 5.41, p < .0001. Dream recall is not a symptom of anxiety. No significant differences in anxiety were found between dreamers and non-dreamers. CEAD scores were related to reports of nightmares, to a feeling of fear or anxiety caused by the dream, and to recurring content. The CEAD was not related to report length or to awakening as a result of dream content.

Predictors of injury in REM sleep behavior disorder

Introduction REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is widely recognized to involve potentially injurious dream enactment behaviors (DEB), but which clinical factors are associated with RBD-related injuries remain largely unknown. We aimed to identify injury predictors in RBD. Materials and methods We surveyed consecutive RBD patients seen at Mayo Clinic between 2008 and 2010 regarding RBD-related injuries and reviewed medical records to determine idiopathic (iRBD) or symptomatic RBD diagnosis. Associations between injuries prior to treatment and demographic, clinical, and medication variables were then determined with odd’s ratios and multiple logistic regression analyses. The primary outcome variables were injury and injury severity. Results Fifty-three patients (40%) responded. Median age was 69 years and 35 (75%) were men. Twenty-five (47%) had symptomatic RBD. Twenty-nine (55%) reported injury, including self (37.8%) and bed partner (16.7%) injury. iRBD diagnosis (OR = 6.8, p = 0.016) and dream recall (OR = 7.5, p = 0.03) were associated with injury, and iRBD diagnosis was independently associated with injury and injury severity, adjusting for age, gender, DEB frequency and duration. Falls during DEB ( p = 0.03) were also associated with more severe injury, while DEB frequency was not associated with injury, injury severity, or falls. Conclusion Injuries are a frequent complication of RBD. iRBD patients are more likely to suffer injury, and more severe injuries, than symptomatic RBD patients. In addition, recall of dreams was also associated with injury, and DEB-related falls were associated with more severe injuries. Frequency of DEB did not predict RBD-related injuries, highlighting the importance of timely initiation of treatment for RBD in patients having even rare DEB episodes. Acknowledgements The project described was supported by the National Center for Research Resources and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, through Grant No. 1 UL1 RR024150-01. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH.

Sharing dreams: Frequency, motivations, and relationship intimacy.

The study investigated aspects of dream sharing and dream recall in an adult sample (N = 667). It explored with whom dreams are shared and why, as well as the relation between relationship intimacy and dream sharing frequency with the partner. A significant, positive correlation was found between dream sharing frequency in couples and perceived relationship intimacy. Further, the findings supported previous research in that women recalled and shared more dreams than men. It was also found, that dreams primarily were shared with a partner (if in a relationship), and with friends (if single), and that nonsingles shared dreams more often than singles. Dreams were shared primarily with the purpose of entertainment. Interestingly, men more than women believed that sharing dreams can lead to improved relationship intimacy.

Dysphoric dreaming and eveningness during the third trimester of pregnancy predict adverse delivery outcomes

Introduction Sleep disturbances during pregnancy affect delivery outcomes, including shorter pregnancies and longer labour (Okun, 2009). Studies also reveal associations between recall of negative dreams and shorter labour (Mancuso et al., 2008; Winget and Kapp, 1972). However, prospective longitudinal studies assessing the value of pregnancy dreams in predicting delivery outcomes are lacking. Whether dream measures constitute better predictors of delivery outcomes than do sleep measures also remains to be determined. This 2-stage longitudinal study assessed whether prospective dream measures during pregnancy (Time-1; T1) predict delivery outcomes (Time-2; T2) controlling for pregnancy, sleep and psychosocial risk factors. Materials and methods Fifty-two 3rd trimester pregnant women ( M = 29.78 ± 3.62 wks of gestation) aged 18–37 years ( M = 28.48 ± 4.06 yrs) and not planning to undergo caesarean sections were followed-up post-delivery. At T1, pregnant women completed demographic and psychological questionnaires and a 14-day home log to assess sleep/dream characteristics. Gestational length and labour duration were assessed at T2. Deliveries occurred at 36–42 weeks of gestation ( M = 39.29 ± 1.46); labour lasted 1–40 h ( M = 13.62 ± 8.99). Four women had unplanned caesareans; their labour duration did not differ from women who delivered vaginally ( M = 13.40 ± 9.28 vs. 16.25 ± 0.03; p = 0.60). Two sets of hierarchical multiple regression analyses were run to predict delivery outcomes from pregnancy dream variables (#dreams, positive–negative dreams ratio, dream clarity, dream impact), controlling for sleep (duration, quality, bedtime/rise time, night awakenings), demographic (age, employment status, family income, education) and psychosocial (mood/concerns, stress, history of emotional problems) characteristics. All demographic variables, prenatal psychosocial factors and sleep variables associated with outcomes at p Results More negative dreams during pregnancy predicted shorter gestation (Beta = −0.61, p = 0.00002); no adjustment was required. Controlling for age, education, stress and sleep duration, later bedtime/rise time predicted longer labour (Beta = 0.28, p = 0.04). Conclusion The study provides new evidence that pregnant women who report more negative dreams are at greater risk for shorter pregnancies. Results are also consistent with the possibility that chronotype mediates relationships between sleep and labour duration. Acknowledgement Research was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

More complex dreams with emotions or aggressions are associated with longer reports

Report length is an indicator of dream recall, cognitive activity of the dreamer and biases due to recording data in the laboratory as opposed to at home. The aim was to investigate the way in which the number of characters, aggressions and emotions affect report length. Hall and Van de Castle’s normative data were taken from DreamBank.net, composed of the dreams of 491 women and 499 men, all of them university students. Data were extracted on the number of characters, aggressions and emotions in the dreams. Subsequently, the relationship between these variables and report length was analysed. A multiple correspondence analysis was also carried out to explore the relationship of emotions and aggressions involving the Dream Self with the number of characters and report length. A significant relationship was found between report length and the number of characters (r = .47, p < .001), the number of aggressions (r = .21, p < .001) and the number of emotions (r = .26, p < .001). The correspondence analysis showed that report length was associated with non-physical aggressions, a greater number of characters and emotion (anger). However, other emotions such as apprehension, happiness, sadness and confusion also produced significant differences in the number of words in the report. A clear differentiation between physical and non-physical aggressions was also observed. The presence of more characters, the role of the Dream Self as the aggressor or victim, and emotions were related to an increase in the length of dream reports. More complex dreams required more words in order to report them. The results show that physical aggressions should be analysed differentially from non-physical aggressions. The latter are associated with threats of a social nature, involving greater anger and more characters.

Reduced dream-recall frequency in left-handed adolescents: A replication

The ability to recall a dream upon waking up in the morning has been linked to a broad variety of factors such as personality, creativity, sleep behaviour and cognitive function. There have been conflicting findings as to whether dream recall is related more to the right or to the left hemisphere, and conflicting findings regarding the relationship of dream-recall frequency to handedness. We have found previously that right- and mixed-handers report having more dreams than left-handers, a finding more pronounced among adolescents than adults. In the present sample of 3535 participants aged from 6 to 18 years, right-handedness and mixed/inconsistent handedness were associated with higher dream-recall frequency compared to that of left-handed persons, again especially in adolescents compared with children. Further research is required to uncover the reason for the lower frequency of dream recall by left-handers.