Draught Animals Research Articles

Influencing factors and GIS-based spatial interpolation for distribution of draught animals in Madhya Pradesh

Influencing factors and GIS-based spatial interpolation for distribution of draught animals in Madhya Pradesh

Sustainable Agriculture: Impact of LEISA and HEIA

This paper observed the effect of low external input agricultural farming system on the efficiency of resource poor farmer. In India majority of farmers are small scale entrepreneurs whose farm actions are performed with low input agricultural technologies. Majority of the technologies contained the refined indigenous information system. Farm size, labour inputs, capital inputs, planting materials and organic manure are the most determinants of the gross income of LEISA farmers. High external input Agriculture (HEIA) are technologies that apply high external inputs such as inorganic or chemical fertilizers to extend nutrient reduction from the soil, pesticides to manage pests and diseases, herbicides to regulate weeds and irrigation facilities for water management within the farms. Farmers inclinations for low input system vary significantly provisional upon the phase of crop production which include technologies for land groundwork use of draught animals, natural/organic substitute for inorganic pesticides and fertilizers, seed growth technologies, simple irrigation and drainage method, low input processing. There is also a substantial interest among farmers for low input methods for most phases of production. There is therefore the need for farmers to adopt these cost active agricultural technologies since they are not only readily available, but also they do not require too much skills and also poses the capacity of making the process of rural development more sustainable.

Effect of varying altitudes on energy consumption and wheat production in Himachal Pradesh

A field trial was conducted for the wheat crop at four different altitudes in Himachal Pradesh namely Palampur, Malan, Dhaulakuan and Bajaura. Energy is one of the most important inputs in agricultural production. It is used for farm operations, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides and is obtained from different renewable and non-renewable sources like diesel/petrol, human labour, animal draught, and electricity. The variation in crop production and energy consumption was determined at various altitudes. The most important set of features responsible for increased wheat yield, technology, input energy, and agro-climatic zone. At location, Bajaura produced the highest output energy (171081.7 MJ/ha) which means maximum grain and straw yield. The maximum energy consumption at Bajaura because of the long spell and good crop health to provide more irrigations required more labour for harvesting and threshing. The Increase in energy inputs enhances the output such as yield, biomass and productivity in different ecosystems. This involves making the most use of available energy inputs to boost output even higher in the key wheat growing regions.

Effect of Labor Saving and Production Enhancement Technologies on Cotton Production in Omiya Anyima Sub County-Kitgum District

The study made an assessment of the effect of labor saving and production enhancement technologies on cotton production in Omiya Anyima sub County-Kitgum District. The specific objectives were to: identify the types of labour saving and productivity enhancement technologies being employed by farmers in cotton production, compare cotton production by farmers using labour saving and productivity enhancement technologies and those not using the technologies, identify areas of research that could enhance cotton productivity and lessen drudgery and excessive labour use, and the challenges associated with the use of labor saving and productivity enhancement technologies in cotton production and recommend some innovative solutions. The study was cross-sectional in nature employing qualitative and quantitative approaches for data collection and analysis. A questionnaire was used to capture information from 376 respondents. The study identified different labour saving and productivity enhancement technologies used in the area such as; animal draft power, tractors, sprayers, herbicides, fertilizers and pesticides. An average production difference between adopters and non-adopters of labour saving and productivity enhancement technologies were 519.8 kilograms per acre in a season. The identified areas of research to enhance cotton productivity and lessen drudgery included; automated irrigation systems, automated weed control systems, auto-guided agricultural systems, automatic motorized sprayers while and robotic planters. Adoption and use of labour saving and productivity enhancement technologies was influenced by factors like economic status, land tenure system, lack of credit to services, and high costs of procurement and operations. The study concluded that Labor Saving and Production Enhancement Technologies have a positive effect on Cotton Production but the users were still affected by challenges like poverty, low knowledge on use, lack of accessibility, costs of hire, capital and land tenure system. The study therefore recommended more education for farmers on the technologies, revisiting land tenure policies to allow farmers have access to bigger land to apply the technologies, supporting farmers through credit services and more capacity building and external support.

Mercado ganadero y estratificación social en el medio rural catalán (siglo XIV)

The article looks at the place of livestock rearing in the Catalonian peasant economy during the fourteenth century. The results are derived from the analysis of 126 notarial ledgers dating from 1328 to 1371 and pertaining to various towns in the Les Gavarres region of northeast Catalonia. A case study of the town of Cassà de la Selva highlights the role of a flexible and widely used animal-lease contract known as the comanda. The peasant serfs who inhabited the region chose which markets to attend in their search for the best offers and there was geographical specialization in the type of domestic animals that were kept. The article also highlights the participation of peasants and other local specialized trade agents, and the role of the mas – peasant farm – in the animal market. The author discovered that a small group of local actors from the most powerful farms, along with a group of families from the urban center, supplied the rest with animals. In some cases, these actors became full professionals and contributed to social polarization within the community. An example of this was the cattle dealer Bonanat Alagot, who monopolized the trade of draft animals in his area of influence during the fourteenth century.

A Comprehensive Societal Energy Return on Investment Study of Portugal Reveals a Low but Stable Value

Energy return on investment (EROI) is a ratio of the energy obtained in relation to the energy used to extract/produce it. The EROI of fossil fuels is globally decreasing. What do the declining EROIs of energy sources imply for society as a whole? We answer this question by proposing a novel EROI measure that describes, through one parameter, the efficiency of a society in managing energy resources over time. Our comprehensive societal EROI measure was developed by (1) expanding the boundaries of the analysis up to the useful stage; (2) estimating the amount of energy embodied in the energy-converting capital; (3) considering non-conventional sources such as the muscle work of humans and draught animals; and (4) considering the influence of imported and exported energy. We computed the new EROI for Portugal as a case study. We find a considerably lower EROI value, at around 3, compared to those currently available, which is stable over a long-time range (1960–2014). This suggests an independence of EROI from economic growth. When estimated at the final stage, using conventional methods (i.e., without applying the four novelties here introduced), we find a declining societal EROI. Therefore, our results imply that the production of new and more efficient final-to-useful energy converting capital has historically kept societal EROI around a stable value by offsetting the effects of the changing returns of energy sources at the primary and final stages. This will be crucial in the successful transition to renewables.

Comparative analyses of copy number variations between swamp and river buffalo

Domestic buffalo is an important livestock in the tropical and sub-tropical region, including two types: swamp and river buffalo. The swamp buffalo is mainly used as draft animal, while the river buffalo is raised for milk production. In this study, based on the new high-quality buffalo reference genome UOA_WB_1, we firstly investigated the copy number variants in buffalo using whole-genome Illumina sequencing. A total of 3,734 CNV regions (CNVRs) were detected in 106 buffalo population with a total length of 23,429,066 bp, corresponding to ∼ 0.88% of the water buffalo genome (UOA_WB_1). Our results revealed a clear population differentiation in CNV between swamp and river buffalo. In addition, a total of 667 highly differentiated CNVRs (covering 886 genes) were detected between river and swamp buffalo population. We detected a set of CNVR-overlapping genes associated with exercise, immunity, nerve, and milk trait which exhibited different copy numbers between swamp and river buffalo population. This study provides valuable genome variation resources for buffalo and would contribute to understanding the genetic differences between swamp and river buffalo.

The Contributions of Muscle and Machine Work to Land and Labor Productivity in World Agriculture Since 1800

Since 1800, there have been enormous changes in mechanical technologies farmers use and in the relative contributions of human and animal muscles and machines to farm work. We develop a database from 1800 to 2012 of on-farm physical work in world agriculture from muscles and machines. We do so to analyze how on-farm physical work has contributed to changes in land and human labor productivities. We find two distinct periods. First, from 1800 to around 1950, land productivity (measured as kcal food supply per hectare of cropland) was relatively stagnant at about 1.7 million kcal/ha, in part due to a scarcity of on-farm physical work. During this period, physical work was scarce because most of on-farm physical work (approximately 80% in 1950) was being powered by low power, low energy efficiency muscle work provided by humans and draft animals. From 1950 to 2012, land productivity nearly tripled as more machine-based work inputs became available. The additional machine-based work inputs have contributed to the growth in land and labor productivities, as they have enabled farmers to control more physical work enabling more irrigation and agrochemical applications. However, the tripling of land productivity has required a near 4.5-fold increase in physical work per hectare, suggesting diminishing returns. Farmers accomplished this extra work with less final energy because they transitioned from low-efficiency muscle work to high-efficiency machines which drove farm-wide energy conversion efficiency up fourfold from 1950 to 2012. By 1990, machine conversion efficiencies started to plateau. Given diminishing returns and plateauing efficiencies, we predict that fuel and electricity usage on farms will increase to continue raising land productivity.

Paddy farmers’ knowledge, perception, and satisfaction on the use of farm machinery in Nepal

Agricultural mechanization refers to the use of different power sources as well as enhanced farm tools and equipment to decrease human and draught animal labor, improve cropping intensity, precision, and timeliness of crop input usage, and reduce losses at various phases of crop production. This research tried to assess paddy farmers' knowledge, views, and contentment with the use of agricultural machinery in the districts of Jhapa, Kapilbastu, and Kailali using a multistage purposive sample technique. The survey research method was used for the investigation. Descriptive statistics and properly constructed scales were used to analyze the data. According to the findings, respondents had only a hazy understanding (0.50) of the critical roles of agricultural machinery in rice production. The total amount of machinery on hand is moderate (0.43). The most frequent piece of machinery possessed by respondents was a tractor (0.65), followed by a knapsack sprayer (0.61). Over one fourth of the respondents (0.28) had a good image of agricultural machinery and were satisfied with its use (0.4). While respondents indicated a high amount of restriction (0.7) when it came to utilizing agricultural machinery. As a result, adopting a varied range of farm machinery should be seen positively in order to increase the commercialization of paddy farming. Farmers would be more inclined to use farm machinery if farm machinery information and skills were spread, as well as supported with grants.

Hierarchical Clustering on Principal Components of Microsatellite Frequency Allele Data from Indonesian Buffaloes

Buffalo is a livestock that is used for meat, milk, draught animals, and religious ceremonies in Indonesia. Buffalo genetic information has not been obtained optimally for the development of buffalo breeding programs. Allele frequency is essential information to determine the genetic diversity of a population. This study investigates the use of one of the multivariate analyzes, hierarchical clustering on principal component (HCPC). The data used were microsatellite allele frequency data of 199 swamp buffaloes and 12 river buffaloes in 8 population (7 populations swamp buffalo and 1 population of river buffalo). Furthermore, the data is processed using factoextra and FactoMineR package in R 4.0.0. The results found that the ILSTS61 and ILSTS17 loci could be used as genetic markers to determine the genetic relationship of Indonesian buffalo. From the study, it is concluded that the HCPC method with allele frequency data can be used to analyze genetic relationships in Indonesian buffalo. The PC (Principle Component) value can describe which loci determines the genetic relationship.
 HIGHLIGHTS
 
 Allele frequency data can be used to determine genetic relationships among population
 Principle component value can determine which the loci is influential in determining a genetic relationship
 Hierarchical Clustering on Principal Components can be used to analyze genetic relationships
 
 GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Computed tomography and osteological examination of the nuchal perforations in Byzantine cattle skulls

This study presents computed tomography (CT) and osteological observations of nuchal perforations in the Middle-Late Byzantine cattle skulls, unearthed from Yenikapı Metro and Marmaray excavations (ancient Theodosius harbour), İstanbul, Türkiye. A total of 17 skulls with perforations of various size, ranging from elliptical to triangular, located in the nuchal (posterior) region of protuberantia intercornualis were examined. Rounded edges and smooth inner walls of these perforations indicated that they were formed when the animals were alive (ante mortem). The CT helped to understand the details of the caudal and dorsal part of head as well as the relationships between these perforations and other cranial structures. The osteological evidence and possible causes of the nuchal perforations were discussed. The animal age and sex were also taken under consideration. The study provided the archaeological proof that the cattle from Yenikapı Metro and Marmaray were used as draught animals; as it appears, the nuchal perforations resulted from the yoke strikes. This is, by far, the first attempt of using the CT to analyse the nuchal perforations in cattle skulls unearthed from any archaeological site in Türkiye.

Региональные контрольные комиссии – рабоче-крестьянские инспекции ВКП(б) как органы внесудебного преследования. На архивных материалах Кубани 1933 г.

The article attempts to reveal the role and forms of implementation of punitive functions by the local Control Commissions—Workers' and Peasants' Inspections of the AUCP (B) during the kolkhozes creation in the rural areas. It draws on unpublished archival documents (1933) from the Center for Documentation on the Contemporary History of the Krasnodar Krai (TsDNIKK). Late 1932 – first half of 1933 was a special period in the life of the Soviet state, and its rural grain-producing zone in particular. One of these areas was Kuban, where the famine began, largely due to the ongoing Stalin’s grain procurement policy. The newly organized agricultural associations, collective and state farms (kolkhozes and sovkhozes), became its first victims. The villagers were weakened by undernourishment, there was a great increase in the mortality of draft animals caused by malnutrition, poor care, and related accidents. The collectivization of national agriculture concurrent with “destruction of the kulaks as a class” was coming to an end. The basis of the article is a microhistorical approach, where the object of study is local historical events providing a deeper understanding of the diverse social component of the process. The leadership and control over the policy, the "fight against kulak sabotage" was officially carried out by the authorities represented by the executive committees of the Soviets of People’s Deputies. However, the analysis of archival materials shows that the main driving force behind these covert punitive processes were bodies of the AUCP (B). The bodies of the party-state control of the AUCP (B) —Control Commissions—Workers' and Peasants' Inspections played the key role. They were the main directing and controlling forces acting through officials (communists, leaders and representatives of party bodies and non-party institutions with their mandatory party organizations). The interaction of the Control Commissions—Workers' and Peasants' Inspections with law enforcement agencies (police, prosecutor's office, courts, the OGPU bodies) was characteristic. It has been revealed that the Control Commissions—Workers' and Peasants' Inspections of the AUCP (B) at the district level were among genuine governing authorities, at the same time acting as bodies of extrajudicial persecution of communists and non-party men. The instrument of persecution was purges, checks, investigations through party and Soviet agencies. In some cases, when seeking to place the blame for certain events, the investigations and decisions had a clear accusatory bias.

Flood‐recession cropping in the mid‐Zambezi Valley: A neglected farming system with potential to improve household food security and income

AbstractFlood‐based farming systems can contribute significantly to smallholder farmers’ food security and household income. The objectives of this study were to assess socio‐economic importance of flood‐recession cropping (FRC); characterise maize agronomic practices; determine factors that affect selection of crop establishment method; and identify major crop production challenges in the mid‐Zambezi Valley. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey of 123 respondents, 11 focus group discussions and field observations. Factors affecting selection of crop establishment method were analysed using the binary logistic regression model and all other data were analysed using descriptive statistics in SPSS version 20.0. FRC was ranked highest among livelihood sources. Crops grown and allocated mean land areas (ha) were maize (0.56), sweet potato (0.25), sugar beans (0.16), okra (0.32), cowpea (0.21), tomato (0.14) and watermelon (0.19). Most farmers (69%) established crops by holing out planting stations in furrows. Maize plant spacing averaged 0.86 × 0.64 m and 75% of the farmers planted at least four seeds per station at 0.28 m mean depth. Only 8.9% of the farmers used inorganic fertilisers and 4.3% used certified seed. Furrow and holing out was more likely to be practised by farmers who resided in Muzarabani, had more household labour, perceived their fields as inadequate, owned more draught power animals, and cited high temperature as a challenge. The more years a farmer had practised FRC, the less likely they were to practise furrow and holing out. Major production challenges were pest damage, and inadequate labour and equipment. There are opportunities to (1) improve crop yields through using certified seed, selecting appropriate crop establishment methods, optimising plant spacing, and microdosing with inorganic fertilisers; (2) intensify high‐value crop cultivation to create employment; and (3) diversify food and income through post‐harvest processing and value addition. Research should address crop pest damage, and inadequate labour and equipment, and yield benefits of different crop establishment methods.

Cultural influences on the castration age of cattle in the northern Baltic Sea region during the medieval and post-medieval periods

Oxen – castrated male cattle (Bos taurus) – were used as draught animals in Finland, Estonia and Sweden for centuries. From the medieval period onwards, the wider phenomenon of oxen culture is evidenced by zooarchaeological material and historical documents, which reflect, among other things, the castration age. When males were castrated at a young age – a method used in Sweden, according to the ethnological sources – it affected the growth of the metacarpal bones; thus, the metacarpals of these oxen should be distinct from those of cows and bulls. However, when males were castrated as adults – a method used in Estonia – it had less effect on the bones, so the metacarpals of these oxen are more likely to resemble those of bulls. Documents from the early modern period indicate that in Finland, cattle were castrated as calves (as they were in Sweden), but some medieval bone finds indicate that they were castrated in adulthood (as they were in Estonia). To resolve this apparent contradiction between the zooarchaeological data and the written evidence, and to understand the cultural transitions in farming practices relating to draught oxen in the northern Baltic Sea region, we studied morphometric changes in 621 metacarpals in Finland and Estonia dating from the medieval and post-medieval periods (13th to 20th century) and compared them with previously published contemporaneous data from Sweden. To investigate the size and shape of the individuals and to distinguish oxen from bulls and cows, we applied widely used osteometric criteria, including the maximum breadth of the distal epiphysis and Mennerich indices. For a set of uncertain samples from medieval Turku, Finland, we identified the sex by amplifying the TSPY gene and X and Y chromosome-specific variations in the ancient DNA. Our results confirm that throughout the medieval and post-medieval periods, late castration was practised in Estonia and early castration was practised in Sweden. In Finland, however, we detected a temporal change in the castration age: cattle were castrated as adults in the medieval period and at a young age in the post-medieval period.

Cause for the Occurrence of Freemartin and Its Influence on Livestock Reproductive Performance

Livestock reproductive performance is a prerequisite for any successful livestock production program and it is depends up on the factors viz. parturition interval, ovarian activity, days open, fertility and age at first parturition, litter size and annual reproductive rate. However, the above mentioned factors are influenced directly or indirectly by the occurrence of freemartin animal within the flock or farm. The objective of this review was to organize the condensed information about the causes for the occurrence of freemartin, development and way of examining a freemartin animal and its influence on livestock reproductive performance. A freemartin is genetically female, but has many characteristics of a male. The ovaries of the freemartin do not develop correctly, and they remain very small, also the ovaries do not produce the hormones necessary to induce the behavioral signs of heat. The external vulvar region can range from a very normal looking female to a female that appears to be male. Usually, the vulva is normal except that in some animals an enlarged clitoris and large tufts of vulvar hair exist. It can be diagnosed in a number of ways ranging from simple examination of the placental membranes to chromosomal analysis. Understanding about the freemartin syndrome is important to take measure by the livestock keepers, farm managers or veterinarian to cull the heifer at her early age or keep it as a teaser bull and/or as draft animal. Keywords: Freemartin; Livestock; M asculinization; Reproductive Performance DOI: 10.7176/JNSR/12-21-03 Publication date: November 30 th 2021

Animals, environment and sustainability: Global warming reducing and inducing attributes of the farm animals

Animals, environment and sustainability are related with each other. The intricate soil-plant-animal relationship is vital for the very ecological integrity of the biosphere. Animal diversity, both inter- and intra-species, has multiple socio-economic attributes. In an agroecosystem with uncultivated land, cultivated land, livestock and households as the integral components, livestock play crucial role in transferring nutrients from ecologically more sustainable ecosystem (forest/ rangeland/ grassland) to ecologically vulnerable one (cultivated land), and in the recycling of nutrients in the cultivated lands. Draught animal power (DAP) is a key source for realizing sustainability in traditional agricultural systems which is ensured by their role in enhancing ecological processes—cropping diversification, agro-biodiversity maintenance, and soil fertility management. Farm animals also play negative role leading to environmental degradation through overgrazing and carbon emissions. Grazing animals significantly affect an ecosystem in triple ways, viz. herbivory, physical effects, and deposition. Overgrazing alters community structure as well as ecosystem functioning, including primary productivity and it has triggering effects on an ecosystem. Farm animals are key agents as well as sufferers of the on-going climate change. Their role in land degradation, water pollution, biodiversity erosion and release of GHGs contributes to exacerbate global warming.

High prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum by perfusion in naturally exposed water buffalo in a region of the Philippines endemic for human schistosomiasis.

In the past decade, ecological surveys emphasized rats and dogs as the most significant animal reservoirs for Schistosoma japonicum (S.j) in the Philippines. However, recent studies demonstrated 51–91% prevalence of schistosomiasis among water buffalo using qPCR in the Sj endemic regions in the Philippines. In order to resolve the inconsistency of reported surveys regarding Sj endemicity among carabao, a domestic water buffalo that is the most important draught animal, we introduced 42 schistosome negative water buffalo to Macanip, Jaro municipality, Leyte, the Philippines, a subsistence rice-farming village that has been the focus of schistosomiasis japonica studies of our group for the past 20 years. We conducted perfusion to the remaining 34 buffalo that survived 10 months of nature exposure and Typhoon Haiyan. Thirty-three water buffalo were found to be positive with at least 1 pair of worms from the mesenteric vein. The infection rate is 97%, with the worm burden of 94 (95% confidence interval, 49–138 worms) worms. To our knowledge, this is the first report about S. japonicum worm burden in naturally infected water buffalo in the Philippines. The fact that with less than one-year of exposure, in this human schistosomiasis endemic area, only 1 out of 34 water buffalo was uninfected is striking. Urgent attention is needed for a cost-effective technique for monitoring Sj infection in animals and humans. Meanwhile, intervention implementation, including water buffalo treatment and vaccination, should be taken into consideration.

The Use of Draught Animals in Rural Labour.

Simple SummaryAlthough mechanisation has markedly reduced animal labour demand in agriculture, draught animals are still used in small production units located on terrains that do not favour agriculture mechanisation. Especially in Africa, Latin America, and Asia, they represent one of the main sources of sustenance for thousands of families who utilise animal labour in numerous agricultural tasks, such as ploughing and harvesting, as well as means of transport and hauling. Depending on the geographic area, the species involved are equids (horses, donkeys, and mules) and bovids (buffaloes and cattle). Draught animals proved to be sustainable in terms of global warming and the use of non-renewable energy as compared with agricultural machinery. However, critical points are the quality of human–animal interaction, due to the close contact between animals and humans while working, and the welfare of draught animals when transported and slaughtered, due to the high prevalence of injuries they suffer when subjected to these practices. Therefore, their use should be promoted in rural marginal areas where only low investments are usually feasible, and the energy of the animals can be obtained at a low cost by feeding them harvest residues and by-products.This study discusses scientific findings on the use of draught animals such as equids (i.e., horses, mules, and donkeys) and bovids (i.e., cattle and water buffaloes) in rural labours. Relevant peer-reviewed literature published between 1980 and 2021 was retrieved from CAB s, PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge, and Scopus databases. Although animals were used to produce draught power since their domestication and are still being used for this purpose, mechanisation has markedly reduced animal labour demand in agriculture. However, the process was uneven across continents according to economic constraints, and draught animals are currently concentrated in small production units located on terrains that do not favour agriculture mechanisation in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. Generally, equids can work at rates similar to those of bovids or faster but can sustain the work for shorter periods of time. In addition, buffaloes possess tough hooves and resistance to disease that make them suitable for working in wetlands and clay soils. Draught animals allow a marked reduction of both GHG emissions and non-renewable energy consumption as compared with agricultural machinery. In addition, they may allow obtaining profits from otherwise non-usable lands. Therefore, their use should be promoted in rural areas where low investments are usually the only ones feasible, and the energy of the animals can be obtained at a low cost by feeding them harvest residues and by-products. However, more attention should be paid to the quality of human–animal interactions—due to the close contact between animals and humans while working—and to the welfare of draught animals when transported and slaughtered—due to the high prevalence of injuries they suffer when subjected to these practices.

Agrarian Marxism, Animal Geographies, and non-human labor in Democratic Kampuchea

Between 1975 and 1979, the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) embarked on a genocidal program of sweeping economic, social, and political change. In an effort to modernize Democratic Kampuchea, as Cambodia was renamed, CPK officials forced the entire populace to clear forests; build dams, canals, and reservoirs; and grow rice in an effort to accumulate rapidly the necessary capital for industrialization. In doing so, upwards of two million people died from disease, hunger and malnutrition, torture, and execution. The broad coordinates of the genocide are well-established. To date, however, no scholarship has examined critically the role of non-human animals in the agricultural transformations initiated during the Cambodian genocide. Drawing on two bodies of scholarship, Agrarian Marxism and Animal Geographies, in this paper we examine the role of draught animals in the regime’s plans to build an economy around agricultural expansion and rice production for export. Specifically, we trace the new productive relationships into which Cambodia’s water buffalo and oxen became enmeshed, and the structures of violence within which these animals played an essential part. We find not only that the work of draught animals materially contributed to the CPK’s plans for state-building, but in the process, the new state–animal relationship became an exemplar of the idealized relationship between the CPK and its human laborers. We conclude that the human–animal relationship provides key insights into the mass violence that transpired in Democratic Kampuchea under the Khmer Rouge and to this end encourage future engagement with interspecies relationships in the Cambodian context and in genocide studies more broadly.

Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) mycotic eye infection: reported herd cases in Thi-Qar province, Iraq

Buffaloes are one of the important farm animals in the south of Iraq and play an essential economical role mainly acting as dairy, meat, and draft animals. This study intended to diagnose buffalo mycotic eye infections in Thi-Qar province/Iraq. Some 250 buffaloes in the herd of 3,700 animals suffered from eye infections from December 2017 to November 2018. Eye swabs were collected from each infected eye of the affected buffaloes of both sexes before treatment. The animals were in different age groups. All samples were transferred to the laboratory in transfer media, and cultured on Sabouraud dextrose (SDA) agar with and without 0.05 g/mL and 0.4 g/mL chloramphenicol and cycloheximide, respectively. Later, the agars were incubated at 25o C and 37o C. The total percentage of eye infection was (6.75%), constituting (49.2%) mycotic infections. The predominant clinical manifestations that appeared on the infected buffaloes were eye inflammation represented by congestion, lacrimation, the opacity of cornea and edema, and reduced productivity of the infected animals. Different fungal isolates were identified from the samples including Aspergillus fumigates, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium spp., Alternaria spp., Fusarium spp., Candida spp., Cladosporium spp., Rhodotorula spp., Mucor spp. and Rhizopus spp. Calves buffaloes below one-year-old were more prone to mycotic infection than one-year-old or more. Additionally, male buffaloes were more susceptible to infection than females. In conclusion, this study isolated various types of fungus from the inflamed eyes of buffaloes. Fungal eye infection and the potential risk factors for fungal keratitis in buffaloes were also investigated. The study also approved the rapid diagnosis of fungi by direct microscopic detection and culture. The author recommends future studies including large numbers of the buffalo herd in Iraq to determine the epidemiology of this condition in the country.