Downstream Fining Research Articles

Holocene Brahmaputra River path selection and variable sediment bypass as indicators of fluctuating hydrologic and climate conditions in Sylhet Basin, Bangladesh

AbstractThe Holocene stratigraphy of Sylhet basin, a tectonically influenced sub‐basin within the Ganges‐Brahmaputra‐Meghna delta (GMBD), provides evidence for autogenic and allogenic controls on fluvial system behaviour. Using Holocene lithology and stratigraphic architecture from a dense borehole network, patterns of bypass‐dominated and extraction‐enhanced modes of sediment transport and deposition have been reconstructed. During a ~3‐kyr mid‐Holocene occupation of Sylhet basin by the Brahmaputra River, water and sediment were initially (~7.5–6.0 ka) routed along the basin's western margin, where limited downstream facies changes reflect minimal mass extraction and bypass‐dominated transport to the basin outlet. Sediment‐dispersal patterns became increasingly depositional ~6.0–5.5 ka with the activation of a large (~2250 km2) splay that prograded towards the basin centre while maintaining continued bypass along the western pathway. Beginning ~5.0 ka, a second splay system constructed an even larger (~3800 km2) lobe into the most distal portions of the basin along the Shillong foredeep. This evolution from a bypass‐dominated system to one of enhanced mass extraction is well reflected in (i) the rapid downstream fining of deposited sand and (ii) a change in facies from amalgamated channel deposits to mixed sands and muds within discrete depositional lobes. The persistence of sediment bypass suggests that seasonal flooding of the basin by local runoff exerts a hydrologic barrier to overbank flow and is thus a principal control on river path selection. This control is evidenced by (i) repeated, long‐term preference for occupying a course along the basin margin rather than a steeper path to the basin centre and (ii) the persistence of an under‐filled, topographically low basin despite sediment load sufficient to fill the basin within a few hundred years. The progradation of two 10–20‐m thick, sandy mega‐splays into the basin interior reflects an alternative mode of sediment dispersal that appears to have operated only in the mid‐Holocene (~6.0–4.0 ka) during a regional weakening of the summer monsoon. The reduced water budget at that time would have lowered seasonal water levels in the basin, temporarily lessening the hydrologic barrier effect and facilitating splay development into the basin interior. Overall, these results place basin hydrology as a first‐order control on fluvial system behaviour, strongly modifying the perceived dominance of tectonic subsidence. Such coupling of subsidence, fluvial dynamics and local hydrology have been explored through tank experiments and modelling; this field study demonstrates that complex, emergent behaviours can also scale to the world's largest fluvial system.

1D morphodynamic modelling using a simplified grain size description

ABSTRACTThis paper introduces an 1D numerical code RubarBE for hydraulic and mobile-bed simulations. The code's ability to reproduce the downstream fining of a gravel–sand mixture in response to bed aggradation is tested against laboratory experiments. Unlike in most numerical models, grain size distribution in each sediment layer is not represented using a multi-class model, but using the median diameter and a sorting coefficient σ. The comparison of numerical results with experimental data shows that the adaptation length , classically used for non-equilibrium sediment transport, is an essential parameter of the model to accurately reproduce the evolution of the deposit front. Empirical laws for adjustments of and σ are proposed to reproduce sediment sorting through two grain-size related adaptation lengths (, ). They are scaled by the length of the reach in morphological equilibrium, which is a useful result for field applications.

Distributary channels in the fluvial to tidal transition zone

Coastal lowland plains under mixed fluvial‐tidal influence may form complex, composite channel networks, where distributaries blend the characteristics of mouth bar channels, avulsion channels, and tidal creeks. The Kapuas coastal plain exemplifies such a coastal plain, where several narrow distributaries branch off the Kapuas River at highly asymmetric bifurcations. A comprehensive geomorphological analysis shows that trends in the channel geometry of all Kapuas distributaries are similar. They consist of a short, converging reach near the sea and a nonconverging reach upstream. The two parts are separated by a clear break in scaling of geometrical properties. Such a break in scaling was previously established in the Mahakam Delta, which suggests that this may be a general characteristic in the fluvial to tidal transition zone. In contrast to the geometrical trend similarities, a clear difference in bed material between the main and side distributaries is found. In the main distributary, a continuous trend of downstream fining is established, similar to what is often found in lowland rivers. In the side distributaries, bed material coarsens in the downstream direction. This indicates an undersupply of sediment to the side distributaries, which may contribute to their long‐term stability as established from historical maps. Tides may be the main agent preventing fine sediment to settle, promoting residual transport of fine material to the coastal ocean.

Grain-size variability of river-bed sediments in mountain areas (the Gemenea and Slătioara rivers, Eastern Carpathians)

Rivers in mountain areas have alluvial beds largely consisting of coarse alluvia (blocks, cobble, gravel) mobilized and transported downstream only during exceptional hydrological phenomena. Their distribution influences river-bed stability, sediment transport rates and high-water levels, because alluvial deposits define bed roughness. As a rule, especially in large rivers, the size of alluvia deposited on river-beds gradually decreases downstream (downstream fining), as the river transport capacity is reduced. This tendency can be interrupted by discontinuities, caused by the lateral input of alluvia or by anthropogenic interventions. The aim of this paper is to analyze the spatial distribution of the size of bed material along two small rivers, Gemenea and Slatioara, located in the northeastern part of the Eastern Carpathians, Romania. The phenomena of grain-size fining or coarsening of the material deposited along these river-beds are of low intensity. The high degree of connectivity between river-bed and hillslopes and scarps of meadow terraces has generally resulted in unimodal distributions centered on the coarse fraction (gravel, cobble and blocks, over 60% of the total), whereas the fine fraction (sands) is below 1%. A slight tendency of bimodality begins to emerge towards the lower course of the Gemenea river profile (sand increases to slightly over 5% of the total bed material). This occurs with meadow development and the reduction of the connectivity between river-bed and adjacent hillslopes. Hence the conclusion that lateral input and longitudinal sorting of particles are among the main causes of bed deposits bimodality in our study area

Response of Bed Sediments on the Grade‐Control Structure Management of a Small Piedmont Stream

AbstractThe grain sizes of 53 small lateral and mid‐channel deposits were evaluated on the 2.7 km long channel‐reach of a headwater piedmont stream that has been affected by check‐dams and bed sills constructions (ca. 14 constructions per km), riprap bank stabilisations and the removal of instream wood. Such interventions have led to the loss of natural vertically oscillating bedforms, and pool‐riffles have been replaced by plane beds. The evaluated sediment deposits were divided based on their positions relative to grade‐control structures on downstream, intermediate and upstream types. The individual types of deposits produced different downstream trends in the grain sizes that reflected their positions with respect to the grade‐control structures (GCSs). The downstream deposits generally produced slow downstream coarsening, which may point to the increased efficiency of the energy dissipation of the GCSs under a gradual downstream decrease in the channel slopes. However, they were generally not coarser than the other two types. The upstream deposits did not indicate any notable downstream grain‐size trend. Despite the significant downstream decrease in the channel slopes and related bankfull shear stresses at the positions of the intermediate deposits and the lack of a lateral sediment supply in the studied longitudinal profile, the sediment calibre of the deposits did not produce any systematic downstream fining. Thus, the observed grain sizes most likely pointed to the selective scouring of the fine sediments, which was caused by the presence of the GCSs and their effects on the decreasing sediment connectivity. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

On how spatial variations of channel width influence river profile curvature

AbstractLongitudinal profiles of alluvial rivers usually exhibit upward‐concave curvatures at equilibrium. River profile concavity has been primarily attributed to sediment downstream fining and to streamwise increments of water discharge. Conversely, upward‐convex profiles have been typically associated with tectonic and geologic controls and with outlet base‐level drops. Equations to describe river profiles at equilibrium developed from mass conservation principles do not consider longitudinal changes in channel width. This study addresses how variations in channel width can also act to control the curvature of longitudinal profiles. We develop a new theoretical framework in which the role on river profiles of downstream variations of channel width, flow discharge, bed roughness, and surface texture are explicitly shown. Unlike classical approaches for river profile evolution, this novel framework identifies physical domains for rivers to develop upward‐concave/convex longitudinal profiles depending on channel width and flow discharge gradients flow intensity and surface texture.

The graded alluvial river: Profile concavity and downstream fining

AbstractThere has been quite some debate on the relative importance of particle abrasion and grain size selective transport regarding the river profile form and the associated grain size trends in a graded alluvial stream. Here we present new theoretical equations for the graded alluvial river profile that account for the effects of particle abrasion and grain size selective transport in the absence of subsidence, uplift, and sea level change. Under graded conditions we find that abrasion results in a mild profile concavity and downstream fining, whereas under aggradational conditions grain size selective transport can lead to large spatial changes in channel slope and bed surface mean grain size.

The problem of predicting the size distribution of sediment supplied by hillslopes to rivers

Sediments link hillslopes to river channels. The size of sediments entering channels is a key control on river morphodynamics across a range of scales, from channel response to human land use to landscape response to changes in tectonic and climatic forcing. However, very little is known about what controls the size distribution of particles eroded from bedrock on hillslopes, and how particle sizes evolve before sediments are delivered to channels. Here we take the first steps toward building a geomorphic transport law to predict the size distribution of particles produced on hillslopes and supplied to channels. We begin by identifying independent variables that can be used to quantify the influence of five key boundary conditions: lithology, climate, life, erosion rate, and topography, which together determine the suite of geomorphic processes that produce and transport sediments on hillslopes. We then consider the physical and chemical mechanisms that determine the initial size distribution of rock fragments supplied to the hillslope weathering system, and the duration and intensity of weathering experienced by particles on their journey from bedrock to the channel. We propose a simple modeling framework with two components. First, the initial rock fragment sizes are set by the distribution of spacing between fractures in unweathered rock, which is influenced by stresses encountered by rock during exhumation and by rock resistance to fracture propagation. That initial size distribution is then transformed by a weathering function that captures the influence of climate and mineralogy on chemical weathering potential, and the influence of erosion rate and soil depth on residence time and the extent of particle size reduction. Model applications illustrate how spatial variation in weathering regime can lead to bimodal size distributions and downstream fining of channel sediment by down-valley fining of hillslope sediment supply, two examples of hillslope control on river sediment size. Overall, this work highlights the rich opportunities for future research into the controls on the size of sediments produced on hillslopes and delivered to channels.

Uranium distribution as a proxy for basin-scale fluid flow in distributive fluvial systems

We infer system-scale fluid flow in the Late Jurassic Salt Wash fluvial succession (SW USA) by plotting uranium deposit distribution against sedimentological data, using uranium distribution as a proxy for subsurface fluid flow. More than 90% of uranium deposits in the Salt Wash occur where sandstone forms 40–55% and sand-rich channel-belts form 20–50% of the succession, which coincides with changes in channel-belt connectivity and gross-scale architecture. The paucity of uranium below these cut-off values suggests that fluid flow is related directly to predictable downstream fining and facies variations in distributive fluvial systems. Supplementary material: A summary table of location data, key trends and the amalgamation ratio method is available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.2849581 .

Experimental tsunami deposits: Linking hydrodynamics to sediment entrainment, advection lengths and downstream fining

A goal of paleotsunami research is to quantitatively reconstruct wave hydraulics from sediment deposits in order to better understand coastal hazards. Simple models have been proposed to predict wave heights and velocities, based largely on deposit grain size distributions (GSDs). Although seemingly consistent with some recent tsunamis, little independent data exist to test these equations. We conducted laboratory experiments to evaluate inversion assumptions and uncertainties. A computer-controlled lift gate instantaneously released ~6.5m3 of water into a 32m flume with shallow ponded water, creating a hydraulic bore that transported sand from an upstream source dune. Differences in initial GSDs and ponded water depths influenced entrainment, transport, and deposition. While the source dune sand was fully suspendable based on size alone, experimental tsunamis produced deposits dominated by bed load sand transport in the upstream ~1/3 of the flume and suspension-dominated transport downstream. The suspension deposits exhibited downstream fining and thinning. At 95% confidence, a published advection-settling model predicts time-averaged flow depths to approximately a factor of two, and time-averaged downstream flow velocities to within a factor of 1.5. Finally, reasonable scaling is found between flume and field cases by comparing flow depths, inundation distances, Froude numbers, Rouse numbers and grain size trends in suspension-dominated tsunami deposits, justifying laboratory study of sediment transport and deposition by tsunamis.

Channel adjustments to a succession of water pulses in gravel bed rivers

AbstractGravel bed rivers commonly exhibit a coarse surface armor resulting from a complex history of interactions between flow and sediment supply. The evolution of the surface texture under single storm events or under steady flow conditions has been studied by a number of researchers. However, the role of successive floods on the surface texture evolution is still poorly understood. An experimental campaign in an 18 m‐long 1 m‐wide flume has been designed to study these issues. Eight consecutive runs, each one consisting of a low‐flow period of variable duration followed by a sudden flood (water pulse) lasting 1.5 h, have been conducted. The total duration of the experiment was 46 h. The initial bed surface was created during a 280 h‐long experiment focused on the influence of episodic sediment supply on channel adjustments. Our experiments represent a realistic armored and structured beds found in mountain gravel bed rivers. The armor surface texture persists over the duration of the experiment. The experiment exhibits downstream fining of the bed‐surface texture. It was found that sorting processes were affected by the duration of low‐flow between flood pulses. Since bed load transport is influenced by sediment sorting, the evolution of bed load transport is impacted by the frequency of the water pulses: short interpulse durations reduce the time over which fine material (transported as bed load) can be winnowed. This, in turn, contributes to declining reduction of the bed load transport over time while the sediment storage increases.

Connectivity of the coarsest fraction in headwater channels: imprints of fluvial processes and debris‐flow activity

Some steep headwater streams of the mid‐mountains landscape of the flysch belt of the estern arpathians are affected by debris flows. Connectivity of the largest boulder and cobble fractions has been evaluated in steep streams found in the transitional zones between the hillslopes and alluvial cones of similar lithology and watershed morphometry. Two longitudinal profiles affected by past debris‐flow activity and two longitudinal profiles void of such processes were selected. In the first case, active channels were characterised by the presence of the coarsest fraction, while a downstream trend of sediment coarsening or fining lacked any influence of contemporary fluvial processes and sediment supply. In addition, debris‐flow‐affected streams showed greater differences between the middle axis of the coarsest particle and the particle‐size index including the lengths of all three axes, which is most likely the result of limited active fluvial transport. All the studied streams demonstrated general downstream fining of the largest particles, which resulted from local flysch lithology containing more resistant sandstones in the upper parts of the watershed. The trend of sediment fining was more rapid in the longitudinal profiles unaffected by past debris flows. These types of streams also showed adjustment of the coarsest bed fraction to contemporary processes in channels by sediment coarsening in incised reaches and sediment fining in depositional reaches as well as by downstream response to some lateral sediment inputs. The index of the unit stream power showed no correlation with the considered coarsest fraction in both fluvial‐dominated channels and debris‐flow‐affected channels.

Bedload composition, transport and modification in rivers of Westland, New Zealand, with implications for the distribution of alluvial pounamu (jade)

River bedload surveyed at 50 sites in Westland is dominated by Alpine Schist or Torlesse Greywacke from the Alpine Fault hanging wall, with subordinate Pounamu Ultramafics or footwall-derived Western Province rocks. Tumbling experiments found ultramafics to have the lowest attrition rates, compared with greywacke sandstone and granite (which abrade to produce silt to medium-sand), or incompetent schist (which fragments). Arahura has greater total concentrations (103–105 t/km2) and proportions (5–40%) of ultramafic bedload compared with Hokitika and Taramakau catchments (101–104 t/km2, mostly <10%), matching relative areas of mapped Pounamu Ultramafic bedrock, but enriched relative to absolute areal proportions. Western Province rocks downthrown by the Alpine Fault are under-represented in the bedload. Enriched concentrations of ultramafic bedload decrease rapidly with distance downstream from source rock outcrops, changing near prominent ice-limit moraines. Bedload evolution with transport involves both downstream fining and dilution from tributaries, in a sediment supply regime more strongly influenced by tectonics and the imprint of past glaciation. Treasured New Zealand pounamu (jade) is associated with ultramafic rocks. Chances of discovery vary between catchments, are increased near glacial moraines, and are highest near source-rock outcrops in remote mountain headwaters.

Scales and causes of heterogeneity in bars in a large multi‐channel river: Río Paraná, Argentina

AbstractTo date, published studies of alluvial bar architecture in large rivers have been restricted mostly to case studies of individual bars and single locations. Relatively little is known about how the depositional processes and sedimentary architecture of kilometre‐scale bars vary within a multi‐kilometre reach or over several hundreds of kilometres downstream. This study presents Ground Penetrating Radar and core data from 11, kilometre‐scale bars from the Río Paraná, Argentina. The investigated bars are located between 30 km upstream and 540 km downstream of the Río Paraná – Río Paraguay confluence, where a significant volume of fine‐grained suspended sediment is introduced into the network. Bar‐scale cross‐stratified sets, with lengths and widths up to 600 m and thicknesses up to 12 m, enable the distinction of large river deposits from stacked deposits of smaller rivers, but are only present in half the surface area of the bars. Up to 90% of bar‐scale sets are found on top of finer‐grained ripple‐laminated bar‐trough deposits. Bar‐scale sets make up as much as 58% of the volume of the deposits in small, incipient mid‐channel bars, but this proportion decreases significantly with increasing age and size of the bars. Contrary to what might be expected, a significant proportion of the sedimentary structures found in the Río Paraná is similar in scale to those found in much smaller rivers. In other words, large river deposits are not always characterized by big structures that allow a simple interpretation of river scale. However, the large scale of the depositional units in big rivers causes small‐scale structures, such as ripple sets, to be grouped into thicker cosets, which indicate river scale even when no obvious large‐scale sets are present. The results also show that the composition of bars differs between the studied reaches upstream and downstream of the confluence with the Río Paraguay. Relative to other controls on downstream fining, the tributary input of fine‐grained suspended material from the Río Paraguay causes a marked change in the composition of the bar deposits. Compared to the upstream reaches, the sedimentary architecture of the downstream reaches in the top ca 5 m of mid‐channel bars shows: (i) an increase in the abundance and thickness (up to metre‐scale) of laterally extensive (hundreds of metres) fine‐grained layers; (ii) an increase in the percentage of deposits comprised of ripple sets (to &gt;40% in the upper bar deposits); and (iii) an increase in bar‐trough deposits and a corresponding decrease in bar‐scale cross‐strata (&lt;10%). The thalweg deposits of the Río Paraná are composed of dune sets, even directly downstream from the Río Paraguay where the upper channel deposits are dominantly fine‐grained. Thus, the change in sedimentary facies due to a tributary point‐source of fine‐grained sediment is primarily expressed in the composition of the upper bar deposits.

How River Rocks Round: Resolving the Shape-Size Paradox

River-bed sediments display two universal downstream trends: fining, in which particle size decreases; and rounding, where pebble shapes evolve toward ellipsoids. Rounding is known to result from transport-induced abrasion; however many researchers argue that the contribution of abrasion to downstream fining is negligible. This presents a paradox: downstream shape change indicates substantial abrasion, while size change apparently rules it out. Here we use laboratory experiments and numerical modeling to show quantitatively that pebble abrasion is a curvature-driven flow problem. As a consequence, abrasion occurs in two well-separated phases: first, pebble edges rapidly round without any change in axis dimensions until the shape becomes entirely convex; and second, axis dimensions are then slowly reduced while the particle remains convex. Explicit study of pebble shape evolution helps resolve the shape-size paradox by reconciling discrepancies between laboratory and field studies, and enhances our ability to decipher the transport history of a river rock.

Longitudinal variability in hydraulic geometry and substrate characteristics of a Great Plains sand-bed river

Downstream trends in hydraulic geometry and substrate characteristics were investigated along a 200km reach of the Ninnescah River in south central Kansas, USA. The Ninnescah River is a large sand-bed, perennial, braided river located in the Central Plains physiographic province and is a tributary of the Arkansas River. Hydraulic geometry characteristics were measured at eleven reaches and included slope, sinuosity, bankfull channel width, and bankfull channel depth. Results indicated that the Ninnescah River followed a predicted trend of decreasing slope and increasing depth and width downstream. There were localized divergences in the central tendency, most notability downstream of a substantial tributary that is impounded and at the end of the surveying reach where the Ninnescah River approaches the Arkansas River. Surface grain-size samples were taken from the top 10cm of the bed at five points across the wetted cross-section within each of the 11 reaches. Sediment analyses demonstrated a significant trend in downstream fining of surface grain-sizes (D90 and D50) but unlike previous studies of sand-bedded rivers we observed coarsening of substrates downstream of the major tributary confluence. We propose that the overall low discharge from the tributary was the primary reason for coarsening of the bed downstream of the tributary. Results of this study provide valuable baseline information that can provide insight in to how Great Plains sand-bed systems may be conserved, managed, and restored in the future.

Abrasion model of downstream changes in grain shape and size along the Williams River, Australia

[1] Modeling pebble abrasion during bed load transport is of fundamental importance in fluvial geomorphology, as it may help to understand downstream fining patterns along gravel bed rivers. Here we review a recently published analytical abrasion model called box equations, which can simultaneously track the shape and size evolution of large pebble populations as the cumulative effect of binary collisions between particles. The model predicts that pebble shapes move away from the sphere and develop sharp edges due to collisional abrasion by sand. We present a field study on the downstream evolution of basalt particle shape and size along the Williams River in the Hunter Valley, Australia. Pebbles get flatter and thinner, and several aquafacts (i.e., abraded pebbles with sharp edges) emerge in the downstream reaches, both suggesting the importance of abrasion by sand. Applying box equations with a few fitted parameters, we present a numerical simulation which reproduces both the shape and size evolution of pebbles along the Williams River. The simulation allows tracking of the shape and size evolution of individual particles as well, revealing an interesting phenomenon that particle size controls shape evolution. Box equations, in combination with existing transport concepts, provide a framework for future shape and size evolution studies in sedimentary environments. In particular, they may help to assess the relative importance of size selective transport versus abrasion in causing downstream fining in gravel bed rivers.

2D numerical modeling of grain-sorting processes and grain size distributions

A depth-averaged finite difference two-dimensional hydrodynamic-morphological and sediment transport model is presented in the orthogonal curvilinear grid system. The sediment submodel considers the influence of selective sorting by modifying the sediment transport capacity and incorporates a simple simulation method to describe changes in the grain size distribution of the bed surface by solving the governing equation for sediment mass conservation. The 2D numerical model was applied to the experiment on downstream fining. The model simulation results and the measurements are in acceptable agreement. The result illustrates the capability of the two-dimensional model to predict the sediment wedge evolution and grain sorting process.

Turbulence, suspension and downstream fining over a sand-gravel mixture bed

Flume experiments were carried out to study the turbulence and its impact on suspension and segregation of grain-sizes under unidirectional flow conditions over the sand-gravel mixture bed. The components of fluid velocity with fluctuations were measured vertically using 3-D Micro-acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV). The theoretical models for velocity and sediment suspension have been developed based on the concept of mixing length that includes the damping effect of turbulence due to sediment suspension in the flow over the sand-gravel mixture bed. Statistical analysis of segregation of grain-sizes along downstream of the bed has been performed using the principle of unsupervised learning or clustering problem. Exploratory data analysis suggests that there is a progressive downstream fining of sediment sizes with selective depositions of gravels, sand-gravels and sand materials along the stream, which may be segmented into three regions such as, the upstream, the transitional and the downstream respectively. This contribution is relevant to understand the direction of ancient rivers, the bed material character in the river form, sorting process and its role in controlling the sediment flux through landscape.

混合砂礫河床変動モデルの構築と粗粒化・細粒化を伴う河床変動への適用

Numerical model for gravel transport was developed. The model employs relation for hiding and bed-load transport of mixtures of Ashida and Michiue (1972) and Wilcock and Croew (2003) and links grain size distributions in the bed load, surface layer and subsurface with the gravel transfer function. The model is also based on finite volume method using HLLC (Harten, Lax and van Leer(1983)) numerical flux. The model was applied to experimental data of a bed degradation and aggradation with armouring and downstream fining. It shows that the model has ability to reproduce the process of bed degradation and aggradation with aromouring and downstream fining, but the more improvement is needed to predict reasonable accuracy.