Double Emulsion Research Articles

The Development of Dermal Self-Double-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems: Preformulation Studies as the Keys to Success.

Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDSs) are lipid-based systems that are superior to other lipid-based oral drug delivery systems in terms of providing drug protection against the gastrointestinal (GI) environment, inhibition of drug efflux as mediated by P-glycoprotein, enhanced lymphatic drug uptake, improved control over plasma concentration profiles of drugs, enhanced stability, and drug loading efficiency. Interest in dermal spontaneous emulsions has increased, given that systems have been reported to deliver drugs across mucus membranes, as well as the outermost layer of the skin into the underlying layers. The background and development of a double spontaneous emulsion incorporating four anti-tubercular drugs, clofazimine (CFZ), isoniazid (INH), pyrazinamide (PZY), and rifampicin (RIF), are described here. Our methods involved examination of oil miscibility, the construction of pseudoternary phase diagrams, the determination of self-emulsification performance and the emulsion stability index of primary emulsions (PEs), solubility, and isothermal micro calorimetry compatibility and examination of emulsions via microscopy. Overall, the potential of self-double-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SDEDDSs) as a dermal drug delivery vehicle is now demonstrated. The key to success here is the conduct of preformulation studies to enable the development of dermal SDEDDSs. To our knowledge, this work represents the first successful example of the production of SDEDDSs capable of incorporating four individual drugs.

Engineering porous PLGA microparticles for pulmonary delivery of sildenafil citrate

Orally administered Sildenafil (SDF) is used to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension. However, it has a relatively low bioavailability of approximately 40%. To circumvent such limitations, pulmonary administration emerges as a promising alternative. This study aimed to develop SDF-loaded porous poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) microparticles for pulmonary administration. Microparticles were obtained by double emulsion with solvent evaporation, using polyethyleneimine (PEI) as a surfactant and ammonium bicarbonate (ABC) as a porogenic agent. The encapsulation efficiency of microparticles was improved up to ≅86% by using PEI at 1% concentration. Aerodynamic diameter, and tappet density of the optimized formulation (0.5% ABC and 1% PEI) were 4.74 ± 0.09 μm, 0.100 ± 0.002 g.cm−3 respectively. The formulations presented a sustained release for up to 72 h in simulated lung fluid. In the human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell line, porous Microparticles were non-cytotoxic at a concentration of 384 μg.mL−1 at 72 h of incubation.

Fabrication and Characterization of Antibody-Loaded Cationic Porous PLGA Microparticles for Sustained Antibody Release.

Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) microparticles have been formulated to allow the sustained release of numerous drugs, including antibodies. It is well-known that antibodies are susceptible to chemical and physical stress; therefore, it is necessary to be loaded on PLGA microparticles under mild conditions. In the present study, we constructed cationic porous PLGA microparticles that could be electrostatically adsorbed with infliximab as a model antibody. Cationic porous PLGA microparticles were prepared using the double emulsion method by adding polyethyleneimine and ammonium bicarbonate. After antibody loading, surface pores closure was achieved by mild heating. The size of the optimized formulation was approximately 5 μm, exhibiting a positive charge. The loaded antibody was gradually released from the formulation over 56 days. Based on a tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α inhibition assay, the released infliximab maintained its pharmacological activity. Collectively, we successfully loaded antibodies into PLGA microparticles while maintaining activity and demonstrating long-acting properties.

Preparation and Characterization of GX-50 and Vitamin C Co-encapsulated Microcapsules by a Water-in-Oil-in-Water (W1/O/W2) Double Emulsion-Complex Coacervation Method.

Co-encapsulated xanthoxylin (GX-50) and vitamin C (Vc) microcapsules (GX-50-Vc-M) were prepared by the combination of a water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) double emulsion with complex coacervation. The W1/O/W2 double emulsion was prepared by two-step emulsification, and it has a uniform particle size of 8.388 μm and high encapsulation efficiencies of GX-50 (85.95%) and Vc (67.35%) under optimized process conditions. Complex coacervation occurs at pHs 4.0-4.7, which has the highest encapsulation efficiency of GX-50 and Vc at pH 4.5. The complex coacervate with tannic acid solidifying (namely, wet microcapsules) has better mechanical properties and also enhances the ability of co-encapsulation of active ingredients. The resulting microcapsules by freeze-drying of wet microcapsules were characterized by UV-vis absorbance spectroscopy (UV-vis), Fourier infrared spectroscopy (FI-IR), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH·) radical scavenging, and in vitro permeation measurements. Under optimal conditions, the encapsulation efficiency and drug loading of GX-50-Vc-M for GX-50 and Vc are, respectively, 78.38 ± 0.51 and 59.34 ± 0.56%, and 35.6 ± 0.68 and 29.8 ± 0.92%. A slight shift in the FTIR peak between single GX-50 or Vc and GX-50-Vc-M confirmed the successful co-encapsulation of GX-50 and Vc in microcapsules. GX-50-Vc-M has bridged irregular spherical aggregates, while GX-50 and Vc are, respectively, encapsulated in hydrophobic and hydrophilic cavities of microcapsules in an amorphous dissolved state. GX-50-Vc-M has the highest DPPH· radical scavenging rate of 62.51%, and the scavenging process of GX-50-Vc-M on DPPH· radicals is more in line with the pseudo-second-order kinetic equation model. Moreover, the in vitro permeation of GX-50 and Vc in GX-50-Vc-M can reach maximum values of 40 and 60%, respectively. This concludes that GX-50-Vc-M is a promising delivery system for the penetration of the antioxidant into the deeper layers of the skin for the antioxidant effect.

Spatiotemporalized Hydrogel Microspheres Promote Vascularized Osteogenesis via Ultrasound Oxygen Delivery

AbstractDisturbance of spatiotemporal oxygen balance is the main cause of delayed healing or nonhealing of large bone defects. The accurate administration of oxygen to regulate disruptions in the spatiotemporal oxygen equilibrium during 9 h of hypoxia is imperative for bone tissue regeneration. Herein, oxygen‐loaded nanobubbles prepared by double emulsification are successfully embedded in GelMA/HepMA microsphere macromolecular meshwork by microfluidic techniques, and a spatiotemporalized hydrogel microsphere is constructed by noncovalently binding bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP‐2). The spatiotemporalized hydrogel microspheres precisely “remote control” oxygen release by ultrasound in vitro 9 h after bone injury to regulate spatiotemporal oxygen homeostasis disorder, maintain a high level of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression, and accelerate bone repair. The spatiotemporalized hydrogel microspheres possess good oxygen‐carrying capacity and ultrasonic responsiveness, and the oxygen concentration increases to 1.63, 1.95, 2.11, and 2.29 times under the ultrasound action at different intensities of 1, 2, 3, and 4 W, respectively, providing the conditions for the precise regulation of spatiotemporal oxygen balance disorder by ultrasound. In the in vitro hypoxia model and in vivo rat femoral defect model, the spatiotemporal hydrogel microspheres show good vascularization and osteogenesis capabilities, which provide a new strategy for the clinical treatment of large bone defects.

Retraction note to: Treatment of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus wound infection using vancomycin-loaded nanoparticles: An in vitro and in vivo study.

Due to the rise of bacteria that are resistant to multiple drugs, treating infections in burn wounds has become a worldwide problem. It is important to find new ways to treat these infections. Lipid-based drug delivery systems have emerged as a promising type of carrier for antibiotics as well as antibacterial agents, such as antimicrobial peptides and nucleic acids, for wound infections. To this end, the current study assessed the antibacterial effects and wound healing properties of vancomycin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) surgical wound infections. vancomycin-SLN was synthesized by double emulsion solvent evaporation techniques, and then in vitro antibacterial activity was evaluated by well diffusion and broth microdilution methods. A surgical wound was inflicted on 36 male rats; the infection was caused by MRSA, and free vancomycin and vancomycin-SLN were topically applied. Particle size, PDI, zeta potential, drug loading, and encapsulation efficiency of the optimum vancomycin-SLN were 350 ± 24 nm, 0.402 ± 0.014, -16.3 ± 2.5 mV, 13.9 ± 1.4%, and 92.14 ± 3.1%, respectively. In vitro antibacterial assays showed lower MICs for free vancomycin and killed bacteria more efficiently than vancomycin-SLN. However, the synthesized nanoparticles indicated long-term antibacterial activity against MRSA. Animals that were treated with vancomycin-SLN showed the best wound healing procedure. Treatment of rats with vancomycin-SLN increased re-epithelialization and decreased granulation tissue development, as seen by histological analysis. Antibiotic-loaded SLN could not only manage wound infection but also enhance wound healing. Therefore, this kind of treatment should be considered by scientists as an applicable treatment for wounds.

Evaluation of viability, physicochemical properties, and digestibility of freeze-dried Weissella cibaria microcapsules during storage

The objective of the investigation was to evaluate the viability, physicochemical properties, and stability of freeze-dried Weissella cibaria microcapsules in gastric and intestinal juices. W. cibaria microcapsules obtained by integrated technologies of double emulsion and complex coacervation were lyophilized and evaluated during storage at temperatures (5, 15, and 25 °C) and time (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 months). Dependent variables were evaluated: water activity (aw), moisture (Xw), solubility, hygroscopicity, peroxide index (PI), viability and simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion (SGD). Capsules stored at 5 °C retained the highest viability at 180 days of storage (7.8 ± 0.1 Log10 CFU g−1), ensuring adequate physicochemical properties: aw (0.507 ± 0.003), Xw (3.4 ± 0.1 %), solubility (33.1 ± 1.3 %), hygroscopicity (1.2 ± 0.3 %), PI (3.8 ± 0.1 meqO2 kg−1). While, at 25 °C viability reached 6.5 ± 0.1 Log10 CFU g−1. In general, it is highlighted that at the 3 temperatures, the probiotic character of the W. cibaria microcapsules is maintained during the 6 months of storage, which guarantees the effectiveness of the encapsulation method.

Osmosis-induced hydrodynamic centering of W/O/W double emulsion droplets for quasi-concentric microcapsule/microsphere fabrication

Water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) double emulsion droplets are a typical colloidal system applied in various practical fields. However, certain high-specification applications necessitate exact geometric homogeneity in terms of both shell diameter and thickness. Despite achieving uniformity in shell diameter, on-chip microfluidic emulsification always leads to an eccentric phenomenon due to innate density differences of the droplet solution. At the same time, the current regulation methods have multiple limitations, including their applicability, regulatory scope, and objective restrictions. Herein, we propose an off-chip osmosis-induced hydrodynamic method to accurately regulate the eccentricity of W/O/W double emulsion droplets. The rational selection of hypertonic osmosis can energize the droplets and induce inward transmembrane water flux. This flow helps to reposition the droplet core to align concentrically with the shell, regardless of the initial dimension and eccentricity of the droplets. As the osmotic induction reduces due to the dilution of the inner solute molar concentration, the optimal droplet configuration can be achieved when osmosis-induced hydrodynamic regulation sufficiently counteracts the adverse effects of droplet solution density difference. The microcapsules can thus be produced by instant UV polymerization of the regulated double emulsion droplets, and the silica microspheres with fine geometric homogeneity can be prepared through further heat treatment, which is expected to meet the stringent morphological requirements in practical applications.

Double Emulsion-Mediated Delivery of Polyphenol Mixture Alleviates Atopic Dermatitis.

Although the polyphenols have been studied to alleviate inflammation, there are still challenges to delivering the polyphenols with stabilized formulation due to their low water solubility and susceptibility to oxidation. Herein, the transdermal delivery system of polyphenol mixture (PM), including quercetin (Q), phloretin (P), and ellagic acid (E), is developed using double emulsion for applying to atopic dermatitis (AD). Through the in vitro anti-degranulation assay, the optimal molar ratio of each polyphenol (Q:P:E = 5:1:1) is obtained, and the PM shows at most a 43.6% reduction of degranulation of immune cells, which is the primary factor of AD. Moreover, the water-in-oil-in-water double emulsion (W/O/W) enhances the PM's stability and has a higher anti-degranulation effect than the oil-in-water emulsion (O/W). In the in vivo 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNCB)-induced mice AD model, PM reduces more AD symptoms than every single polyphenol. The PM-encapsulated W/O/W (PM_W/O/W) shows the most effectiveness in AD by decreasing dermatitis score, i.e., skin/ear thickness, mast cells, and serum IgE level. Finally, this suggests that the findings on the optimal ratio of PM and double emulsion-based delivery would be beneficial in treating AD and can be applied to other allergic diseases.

Magnetic open porous microspheres via high internal phase emulsion templating as efficient Pb adsorption material

Emulsion templating enables the synthesis of hierarchically porous polymers. By adding another phase to this process and therefore, creating a multiple emulsion templating method, it is possible to synthesise hierarchically porous microspheres. In this study water-in-oil-in-water double emulsion templating was used to prepare porous microspheres by utilising thiol-ene click chemistry. For this trimethylolpropane tris(3-mercaptopropionate) and trimethylolpropane triacrylate were used. To the monomer phase magnetic nanoparticles were added to synthesise polyHIPE microspheres with magnetic properties. The higher magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) content also affected the morphology and microsphere size. With increasing MNPs content the bead diameter decreased, while the diameter of the primary pores of the cross-section increased. However, while the MNPs influenced the morphology, the chemical composition was not influenced. The microspheres were used for the removal of Pb2+. From a 2.9 mg/L solution up to 97.0% of Pb was removed after 24 h.

Carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan-chitosan complex nanogels stabilized emulsions incorporated into alginate as microcapsule matrix for intestinal-targeted delivery of probiotics: In vivo and in vitro studies

In this study, we developed a novel delivery system using carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan-chitosan (CMKGM-CS) nanogels stabilized single and double emulsion incorporated into alginate hydrogel as microcapsule matrix for intestinal-targeted delivery of probiotics. Through in vitro experiments, it was demonstrated that alginate hydrogel provided favorable biocompatible growth conditions for the proliferation of Lactobacillus reuteri (LR). The alginate hydrogel containing single (ASE) or double emulsions (ACG) enhanced the resistance of LR to various adverse environments. Simulated gastrointestinal digestion experiments revealed that the survivability of LR in free, CON, ASE and ACG group decreased by 6.45 log CFU/g, 4.21 log CFU/g, 1.26 log CFU/g and 0.65 log CFU/g, respectively. In vivo studies conducted in mice showed that ACG maintained its integrity during passage through the stomach and released the probiotics in the targeted intestinal area, whereas the pure alginate hydrogels (CON) were prematurely released in the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, the viable counts of ACG in different intestinal segments (jejunum, ileum, cecum, and colon) were increased by 1.11, 1.42, 1.68, and 1.89 log CFU/g, respectively, after 72 h of oral administration compared to the CON group. This research contributed valuable insights into the development of an effective microbial delivery system with potential applications in the biopharmaceutical and food industries.

Effect of variation in basic emulsion structure and polysaccharide content on the physicochemical properties and structure of composite-based emulsion gels as cube fat mimetics

This study aimed to reveal the effect of different basic emulsion structures (W/O/W and O/W) and polysaccharide additions on protein-polysaccharide composite-based emulsion gels utilizing soybean protein isolate, palm oil and konjac glucomannan. The results of texture profile, rheological tests, microstructure observations, and oral tribology showed that basic emulsion structures and konjac glucomannan addition had significant effect on the emulsion gels' properties, while the impact of konjac glucomannan addition was stronger. W/O/W double emulsion gels (DEG) exhibited lower oral friction coefficients and obtained higher scores for oiliness and juiciness during the sensory evaluation. However, O/W single emulsion gels (SEG) displayed a firmer texture and higher chewiness, a 29.62% and 49.57% increase compared to the DEG at 7% konjac glucomannan addition on the hardness and chewiness respectively. It has demonstrated the emulsion gels' potential as cube fat mimetics and feasibility of adjusting their properties by changing the basic emulsion structure.

PLGA-based microspheres loaded with metformin hydrochloride: Modified double emulsion method preparation, optimization, characterization, and in vitro evaluation

The modified solvent removal method was used to encapsulate metformin hydrochloride (MH) within poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres. The study investigated the effect of varying polymer concentrations on the loading and release of the drug from the microspheres. The encapsulation process involved using a double emulsion method, resulting in microspheres with particle diameters ranging from approximately 4.4μm to 2.7μm. The study achieved high encapsulation efficiencies, ranging from 81% to 90%, with drug loadings ranging from 18% to 11%. The release of the drug from the microspheres followed a biphasic pattern over 24 days, with nearly complete release by the end of the study period. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis indicated that there were no notable differences between PLGA and MH-loaded microspheres, suggesting minimal interactions between MH and PLGA. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques were used to investigate the state of the MH within the microspheres. The results suggested that the MH was dispersed at a molecular level within the spheres and existed in an amorphous state. This amorphous state of the drug may explain the slow and prolonged release observed in the study.

Application of Pickering emulsion with microcrystalline cellulose in vitamin C double emulsion process with spray drying technology

ABSTRACT This research studies the impacts of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) concentrations on the physicochemical properties of spray-dried water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) vitamin C double emulsion powder Four MCC concentration (1%, 1.5%, 2%, and 2.5%) were used to produce the vitamin C double emulsion powder. The results of the emulsion’s creaming index, flow behaviour index, zeta value, and particle size indicated that these parameters decreased when the MCC concentration increased. Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that the higher MCC concentration resulted in a smoother surface In general, the MCC concentration increased, the particle size, hygroscopicity, solubility, water content, and water activity of the double emulsion powder decreased. Double emulsion powder containing 2% MCC presented the highest level of antioxidant activity and was mostly stable after storage for 56 days. Before and after drying, transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis of the morphological characteristics of the liquid emulsion showed that the concentration of 2% MCC in the emulsion could form a W/O/W double emulsion structure. In conclusion, the addition of MCC significantly affect the properties of vitamin C double emulsion.

Temperature-Responsive Pickering Double Emulsions Stabilized by Binary Microgels.

Microgels are excellent emulsifiers that can self-assemble to reduce interfacial tension and form a steric barrier at an oil-water interface. Herein, we report a two-step emulsification approach to prepare oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) Pickering double emulsions through the dispersion of microgels in two immiscible phases. The stabilization mechanism depends on the uneven distribution and adsorption of hydrophilic water-swollen microgels and hydrophobic octanol-swollen microgels on either outer water droplets or inner oil droplets. Our results reveal that binary microgels outperformed single microgels in terms of interfacial tension reduction and emulsion stabilization. Notably, the binary microgel-stabilized Pickering double emulsions show excellent temperature responsiveness owing to the intrinsic thermal sensitivity of microgels. Consequently, the selective and rapid release of encapsulated substances in different phases can be achieved through the adjustment of the ambient temperature.

Production and Reconfiguration of Double Emulsions by Temperature Control.

Double emulsions are of great importance for both science and engineering. However, the production of multicore double-emulsion droplets is challenging and normally requires sophisticated microfluidic devices, which limits their availability to broader communities. Here, we propose a simple, precise, and scalable batch method for producing double emulsions with monodispersed multicores at milliliter per minute rates, using the most common means in laboratory, temperature. By rapidly cooling liquid crystal emulsions, the introduced temperature gradient around the emulsion droplets leads to the injection of monodispersed guest droplets to form double-emulsion droplets. The number of injected water droplets can be precisely controlled by adjusting the thermally induced mechanical force through the temperature difference and the cooling rate. In contrast to conventional microfluidic fabrication, this method processes all emulsion droplets simultaneously in a noncontact and in situ manner. Therefore, it has great flexibility, allows multiple processing of double emulsions of arbitrary shape, has good capacity for mass production, and offers excellent compatibility with technologies such as microfluidics. Finally, we demonstrate that temperature changes can also be used to release the inner droplets from the double emulsion. The proposed method offers a reversible tool for processing double emulsions with minimal cost and expertise and is applicable to droplet-based microsystems in materials science, photonics, sensors, pharmaceuticals, and biotechnology.

Fine-tuning formulation and biological interaction of doxorubicin-loaded polymeric nanoparticles via electrolyte concentration modulation

Doxorubicin (DOX) is amongst the most widely used chemotherapeutic drugs against various cancers. However, its controlled biodistribution to the tumor site at the required pharmacokinetics profile remains challenging. In this work, a vast study of formulation parameters has been performed to control doxorubicin loading into polymeric nanoparticles in physiological conditions. Water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) template emulsions have been formulated, including doxorubicin in the internal water phase. Specifically, the system [Doxorubicin in aqueous solution (W1) / Pluronic F-127 (S) and PLGA in ethyl acetate (O)], [Polysorbate 80 (S) in water solution], using phosphate buffer on both aqueous phases at different electrolyte concentrations has been established. The first W1/O nano-emulsion was formed by high-speed homogenization, and the second O/W2 nano-emulsion was formed by the phase inversion composition method, a low-energy emulsification appropriated for pharmaceutical compounds. Although many previous studies had already used double emulsions for DOX encapsulation in nanofluids, here, for the first time, the salt concentration of the water phases has been varied to control the resulting doxorubicin and nanoparticle properties. The addition of high concentrations of electrolytes in both aqueous phases decreases the solubility and dissolution rates of the drug, leading to a high degree of DOX dimerization. This phenomenon significantly impacts the internalization and subcellular localization. Facilitating drug nuclear accumulation is of vital interest, and this is primarily achieved when doxorubicin is incorporated into nanoparticles formulated with PBS at low electrolyte concentrations (2.5 mM), which exhibit exceptional internalization properties. Thus, it has been demonstrated that doxorubicin loading in polymeric nanoparticles can be tuned by only varying salt concentrations of template W1/O/W2 emulsions. Consequently, our results show the adequacy of the double nano-emulsion templating for the generation of non-toxic DOX-loaded polymeric nanoparticles with different physicochemical properties and interaction with the cell surface that would allow their use for various anticancer therapies.

Effect of high-pressure homogenization treatment and Persian gum on rheological, functional properties and release kinetic of crocin from double emulsions

In the present study, the effect of water-soluble fraction of Persian gum (PG) and high-pressure homogenization (HPH) on some characteristics of double emulsions of (W/O/W) containing crocin was investigated. The results show the addition of PG increases the zeta potential and alters the charge on the droplet surface, thus reducing coalescence and improving emulsion stability. Also, the PG-coated emulsions have larger droplet sizes, but improved physical stability due to electrostatic and steric repulsions as well as high viscosity. HPH treatment leads to a decrease in droplet size and an increase in zeta potential, further improving emulsion stability. The findings suggest that the combination of PG and HPH treatment could be implemented to produce stable double emulsions for various applications like emulsions beverages containing crocin. Moreover, double emulsions stabilized with PG can positively affect the protection of crocin under gastrointestinal conditions, and more crocin can be absorbed by the body in the intestine. The dynamic behavior exhibited that the treated DEs using HPH behaved more like viscous fluids (G′< G″) when the frequency increased.

Implementation of a ternary lattice Boltzmann model in LAMMPS

The properties of multicomponent fluids are governed by the interplay of phase behavior, fluid dynamics, and interfacial thermodynamics. A mixture formulation that leverages this interplay is an important aspect in many fabrication processes based on emulsion templating. The lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) has become a popular approach for simulating hydrodynamic effects in complex fluids and soft matter. Here we present an implementation of a ternary lattice Boltzmann model that allows to simulate a mixture of three immiscible fluids. We build on the LATBOLTZ extension of the open-source package LAMMPS and implement a ternary free energy model recently introduced by Semprebon et al. [Phys. Rev. E 93, 033305 (2016)]. We validate the static and dynamic properties by simulating liquid lenses, double emulsions, and ternary mixtures. From the simulations, we obtain the complete morphology diagram of the ternary mixture in composition space. We further discuss an application of the method to phase segregation of ternary films. The implementation of the ternary LBM in LAMMPS opens vast opportunities for mesoscale simulations of interfacial phenomena and non-equilibrium transport processes in multicomponent fluid mixtures. Program summaryProgram Title: fix lb/multicomponentCPC Library link to program files:https://doi.org/10.17632/gn8znmyxrh.1Developer's repository link:https://github.com/uschille/lammps/tree/ternary-lbmLicensing provisions: GPLv2Programming language: C++Journal reference of previous version: C. Denniston, N. Afrasiabian, M.G. Cole-André, F.E. Mackay, S.T.T Ollila, T. Whitehead. LAMMPS lb/fluid fix version 2: Improved hydrodynamics forces implemented into LAMMPS through a lattice-Boltzmann fluid. Comput. Phys. Commun.275, 108318 (2022).Does the new version supersede the previous version?: NoReasons for the new version: The lb/multicomponent fix provides new capabilities for simulating ternary fluid mixtures.Summary of revisions: An implementation of the ternary free-energy lattice Boltzmann model [1] has been added to the LATBOLTZ extension of LAMMPS. The new functionality is available through the script command fix lb/multicomponent.Nature of problem: Multicomponent fluids involve non-local interactions that give rise to fluid-fluid surface tension and a non-ideal pressure tensor. This requires a modification of the standard lattice Boltzmann method.Solution method: The implementation extends the existing lattice Boltzmann code in LAMMPS [2] and introduces data structures and methods for the ternary algorithm introduced in [1]. The code carries out the streaming and collision steps for three fluid components using the appropriate equilibrium distributions. The equilibrium distribution is calculated based on thermodynamic quantities derived from the free energy.Additional comments including restrictions and unusual features: The current version of the lb/multicomponent fix is restricted to the D3Q19 lattice.

Compartmentalization of lutein in simple and double emulsions containing protein nanoparticles: Effects on stability and bioaccessibility

Delivery systems designed through protein stabilized emulsions are promising for incorporating carotenoids in different products. Nevertheless, the versatility in structures of such systems raises questions regarding the effect of the bioactive compound localization on their bio-efficacy, in particular for double emulsions. In this context, the aims of this study were to determine the impact of the localization of lutein in different water/oil/water double emulsions versus a single oil/water emulsion on the stability and in vitro bioaccessibility of lutein, a lipophilic carotenoid. The inner aqueous phase, which contained whey protein isolate (WPI) nanoparticles obtained by desolvation, was emulsified in sunflower oil stabilized by polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR). The primary emulsion was then emulsified in a continuous aqueous phase containing whey protein isolate (WPI) and xanthan gum, the latter to increase the viscosity of the outer phase and delay creaming. Lutein was incorporated using different strategies: (1) lutein entrapped by WPI nanoparticles within the inner water phase of a double emulsion (W-L/O/W); (2) lutein incorporated into the oil phase of the double emulsion (W/O-L/W); (3) lutein incorporated in the oil phase of a single emulsion (O-L/W). All systems contained similar whey protein concentrations, as well as all other stabilizers. W-L/O/W sample showed the lowest lutein stability against light exposure during storage, and the highest lutein bioaccessibility after in vitro digestion, for freshly made samples. Furthermore, the in vitro bioaccessibility of lutein incorporated into the single emulsion was considerably lower than those observed for the double emulsions. The results reinforce the importance of designing appropriate structures for delivering improved stability and bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds.