Double Consonants Research Articles

Word Stress in Santri Utterance: A Comparative Analysis of Acoustic Phonetics

Although word stress in Arabic is not phonemic, proper use can minimize communication ambiguity. This study aims to analyze the production of word stress by students of Arabic as a second language (L2) and compare it with native speakers. This comparative study, involved six second-year students of Madrasah Aliyah as research samples. The research data were collected using listening, recording, and note-taking techniques. Then the research data were analyzed using Praat version 6.4.01 to find the stress accurately based on fundamental frequency, duration, and intensity level. The results showed that most L2 learners produced stress correctly on words with light syllables, but incorrectly on heavy and super heavy syllables. On the other hand, the form of word pronunciation also affects stress errors. Words characterized by super heavy syllables and a pause form are typically pronounced with weak stress. In addition, stress errors occur in syllables with double consonants where L2 learners do not apply good enough stress so that they sound like single consonants. These errors occur due to their mother tongue's different word stress systems. The findings are expected to positively impact L2 learners and teachers, by highlighting pronunciation issues, particularly concerning word stress.

Identification of Mora in Sokuon, Tan’on, and Chouon by Japanese language learners in Indonesia

Japanese is regarded as mora-timed, while Indonesian is syllable-timed because it provides equal weight and time for all syllables. Indonesian learners are struggling in differentiating one mora and two moras, and single consonant and double consonants. This study investigated Indonesian respondents’ ability to identify double consonants (sokuon), short vowels (tan’on) dan long vowels (chouon). 62 Indonesian respondents were involved as they were asked to listen carefully to a set of sounds containing the three distinctive sounds once and to write the sentence they heard. The result showed that 18% of 62 respondents fail to identify the short vowel (tan’on) because they omit certain sounds, change the word form inaccurately and put words in the inaccurate position when they write the sentence. In identifying double consonants (sokuon), 11% of 62 respondents failed because they inaccurately changed the word form when writing the sentence. In identifying long vowels (chouon), only 6% of 62 respondents failed because they added unnecessary sounds and changed the word form inaccurately. In conclusion, although Japanese and Indonesian languages are different in their rhythm classes, Indonesian learners’ ability to identify the distinctive sounds of the Japanese language is relatively high although listening to the material more than once.

Model for the Acquisition of English Sound-Spelling Correspondence in Second Language Acquisition a Case Study of Monosyllabic Words

This study investigates the correspondence between the spelling and pronunciation of English words, focusing on monosyllabic words. By applying the permutation and combination methods and the maximum onset principle, we systematically analyze the various forms of monosyllabic words preceding with zero consonant, single consonant, double consonants, and three consonants before vowels. The systematic analysis of vowel replacements (E, I, O, U) within C-V combinations unveils distinct patterns for long and short vowels, diphthongs, triphthongs and r-controlled vowels. The findings reveal the underlying regularities that impact the pronunciation of English words. The study is designed to cultivate phonological awareness in second language acquisition, paving the way for in-depth research on the relationship between the spelling and pronunciation of multi-syllabic words in English through the (((C)C) C) V((((C)C) C) C) model.

ALTERNATIONS OF INDONESIAN SOUNDS IN SAMBAS MALAY

Indonesian is derived from Standard Malay, while Sambas Malay (SM), a language-code spoken by indigenous people mostly living in Sambas Regency, West Kalimantan, becomes one of Malay dialects; and SIL (2006) also explains it becomes one of standard variations of Malay. Therefore, the two language codes are assumed to be derived from the same ancestral language, i.e., Proto-Austronesian language. Consequently, Indonesian and SM share sameness which is shown by identical cognates of the two language codes. There are other cognates which show sound alternations. The sound alternations comprise changes, additions, deletions, and syllabic movements of segments and sound clusters. The data corpora are the phonological forms of the cognates of Indonesian and SM. The phonological forms of SM cognates are obtained from and/or based on a previous study on phonological aspects of SM lexical items conducted by Firman et al. (1998). Meanwhile, Indonesian cognates are Indonesian lexical items which are available in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (the Main Dictionary of Indonesian) and become the equivalents for SM lexical items afore-mentioned; and the phonological forms of Indonesian cognates are determined by referring to the rules of grapheme-phoneme correspondences in Indonesian proposed by Fauzi (2015). Sound alternations show morphophonemic alternations like consonant weakening, consonant strengthening, lenition, fortition, nasalization, de-nasalization, glottalization, de-glottalization, vowel laxing, vowel tensing, diphthongization, sound deletion, sound addition, gemination or consonant doubling, sound fusion, sound fission, metatheses, assimilation, dissimilation, word lengthening, word shortening, and de-reduplication. Certain findings show certain phonotactics in SM. The result of the discussion also shows the distribution of segments in both of two language codes.

Deep Learning Driven Arabic Text to Speech Synthesizer for Visually Challenged People

Text-To-Speech (TTS) is a speech processing tool that is highly helpful for visually-challenged people. The TTS tool is applied to transform the texts into human-like sounds. However, it is highly challenging to accomplish the TTS outcomes for the non-diacritized text of the Arabic language since it has multiple unique features and rules. Some special characters like gemination and diacritic signs that correspondingly indicate consonant doubling and short vowels greatly impact the precise pronunciation of the Arabic language. But, such signs are not frequently used in the texts written in the Arabic language since its speakers and readers can guess them from the context itself. In this background, the current research article introduces an Optimal Deep Learning-driven Arab Text-to-Speech Synthesizer (ODLD-ATSS) model to help the visually-challenged people in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The prime aim of the presented ODLD-ATSS model is to convert the text into speech signals for visually-challenged people. To attain this, the presented ODLD-ATSS model initially designs a Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU)-based prediction model for diacritic and gemination signs. Besides, the Buckwalter code is utilized to capture, store and display the Arabic texts. To improve the TSS performance of the GRU method, the Aquila Optimization Algorithm (AOA) is used, which shows the novelty of the work. To illustrate the enhanced performance of the proposed ODLD-ATSS model, further experimental analyses were conducted. The proposed model achieved a maximum accuracy of 96.35%, and the experimental outcomes infer the improved performance of the proposed ODLD-ATSS model over other DL-based TSS models.

Gemination Errors in Arabic-English Transliteration of Personal Names on Facebook

This study aimed to explore how Arabic native speakers transliterate personal names containing geminates to English on social media and what transliteration anomalies they produce. A sample of 406 English transliterations of Arabic personal names with geminates by Arabic native speakers was compiled from Facebook and analyzed to find out the percentage of Arabic names in which geminates were transliterated into double consonants correctly; the percentage of Arabic names in which geminated consonants were reduced to a singleton consonant in the English transliteration; and the percentage of Arabic names where a singleton consonant was doubled in the English transliteration. It was found that one third of the Arabic name tokens with geminates were transliterated correctly, i.e., the geminated consonant in Arabic was represented by a double consonant in the corresponding English transliteration as in compound names (Abdullah, Noureddin) and Nassar, Algammal, Alqattan, Allam, Hagga and son. In 41% of the name tokens, the geminate was represented by a single consonant in the corresponding English transliteration as in Amouna, Amool, Elzahar, Hamam, Elnagar, Sedeek, Fatouh. In 26% of the English transliterations, a single consonant was doubled in the corresponding transliteration, although the Arabic name has no geminates and the consonant is pronounced as a single phoneme as in Ahmmed, Anass, Ossama, Quassem, Sammar, Wissam, Yassin, Youniss. The most commonly geminated consonant was the s which comprised 23% of the tokens. Since Arabic geminates are spelled with a single consonant and a diacritical mark ّ that is not usually shown in the written form used by Arab adults, Arabic speakers tended to transfer the spelling of Arabic geminates into a single consonant in English. They also overgeneralized double consonants in the English transliteration of Arabic names that are pronounced with a single consonant phoneme. Recommendations for improving the transliteration competence of personal names by Arabic native speakers on social media are given.

Prosody of F. W. Haack’s dictionary

The article deals with the notation of prosodic features of Lithuanian words in F. W. Haack’s Lithuanian-German and German-Lithuanian dictionary (1730). First, the place of stress (in some cases also tone) is shown by Haack’s diacritical marks. Second, in some cases the place of stress is indirectly reflected by orthographic devices used to mark vowel quantity, e.g., the use of two different letters <i> and <y> for the long vowel y or the use of double consonants to mark the brevity of the preceding vowel. Finally, a separate valuable source of data for Lithuanian historical accentology is constituted by hand-written diacritical marks placed above some words in the copy of the dictionary held at Vilnius University Library.

The sociologization of the concept of the inner form of the word by Gustav Speth and Vladimir Bibikhin

Speths (Gustav Spet/Speth/Spth) theory of language, which subjects W. von Humboldt's linguistics, rooted in the semantic production of Indo-European languages, to phenomenological criticism, problematizes the limits of linguistic expression. For Speth, the inner form of the word is not just a matter of etymological image, capable of generating other, more efficacious images, actualized in poetic invention. Speth understands the poetic already on the basis of the distinction between the content of consciousness and the object of consciousness in the school of F. Brentano, and therefore interprets poetic speech as a resource of constant interpretation of language data. Inner form then turns out to be the very content of consciousness that exists before interpretations - whereas interpretation is produced by the very energy of language, by its social existence itself, and the social being of language coincides with the making of stable images with a form of their own. Ways of writing, then, may not be limited to the familiar script, but may convey a sustained syntax of the imagination that differs from the school syntax that goes back to the Aristotelian understanding of predication. Speth's rejection of the doubling of consonants within a morpheme and V. Bibikhin's rejection of the comma as a separating rather than intonational sign belongs to the general line of rejection of the separation of the similar, which contradicts the new understanding of the sociality of language. Bibikhin sees Speth as an administrator, but of a new type, knowing the internal form as the basis of correct scientific production and giving ritual duty to the internal form, whereas Potebnya took ritual seriously. But this administrative experience is what allowed Spet to formulate all those prerequisites for a sociological understanding of internal form, which Bibikhin interprets in light of Speths biography. Understanding Speth as a virtuous administrator, Bibikhin reveals Speths doctrine of internal form as a doctrine of the creation of new disciplinary boundaries, as opposed to the avant-garde overcoming of boundaries. A close reading of Shpeths work shows that his particular apophatic approach to inner form was the source of the generation of new disciplines and practices within disciplines, which Bibikhin understood as the project of a new Renaissance, the rebirth of productive scholarship.

Doubling up: The Influence of Native and Foreign Language Cues in Foreign Language Double Consonant Spelling

In this study, we investigated which spelling cues are used in word-medial consonant spelling by learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Previous research has shown that native speakers of English rely on different cues to decide whether a single (“diner”) or double consonant (“dinner”) needs to be used in word-medial consonant spelling. These cues include phonology, orthography, morphology and lexical frequency. We investigated whether these cues play a similar role in Dutch spellers who are EFL learners, next to similarity of the English target to Dutch. We analyzed dictation task data that was part of an unsupervised digital learning environment for EFL learning. The error analyses revealed that novice EFL spellers mainly used phonological and cross-linguistic cues in consonant doubling. In contrast, more proficient spellers relied less on phonological cues, and relied on morphological cues instead. The EFL spellers did not rely on orthographic cues. Furthermore, spelling difficulty was influenced by the frequency of a word and its similarity with the native-language equivalent, in terms of cognate status (non-cognate/cognate) and consonant doubling. Together, our findings indicate that a higher number of converging cues facilitates spelling for EFL spellers and that their reliance on cues changes as spelling proficiency increases.

Japanese Native Speakers’ Perception on Learners’ Pronunciation of Double Consonant Sounds in Japanese Adverbs (Fukushi)

The purpose of this study is to determine the perception of Japanese native speakers on the pronunciation of the double consonant「促音」 (sokuon) in Japanese adverbs or 「副詞」 (fukushi) namely「ゆっくり 」 (yukkuri),「ずっと」(zutto), and「やっと」(yatto) by ten Japanese language students in a state university in East Java, Indonesia. This study uses both quantitative and qualitative approach with conducting assessments of students’ pronunciation of Japanese adverbs (fukushi) by three Japanese Native Speakers (JNS). The results showed that eleven data were pronounced perfectly and naturally, sixteen data were pronounced naturally, four data were pronounced a little naturally, and one data was pronounced a little unnaturally and unnaturally. However, there were seven data misunderstood by the JNS. The results also show that differences in JNS perception of the respondent’s pronunciation have an impact on the assessment, and the double consonants also affect the duration of pronunciations which affects the assessment from JNS. In addition, the Japanese language students participated in this study were all considered able to pronounce the three「副詞」(fukushi) or Japanese adverbs correctly according to JNS.

PEMBELAJARAN HATSUON MENGGUNAKAN TEKNIK DIKTE

Research on Japanese pronunciation skills for Indonesian students is important. This research describes the student’s ability to listen to Japanese pronunciation / Hatsuon using dictation techniques and responses to dictation techniques in learning Japanese pronunciation. This research method uses a descriptive qualitative research instrument in the form of a questionnaire. The respondents in this study were students of the Japanese Language Education study program at the University of Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, as many as 15 people who had Japanese language skills equivalent to N5. This research showed that almost all students tend to easily listen to long vowels and double consonants and distinguish sounds in the lines SA and SHA and JA and ZA. However, the TSU consonants at the beginning of the word are pretty challenging to catch appropriately. Then from the results of the questionnaire distribution, it can be seen that students think that the dictation technique is an excellent alternative to studying Japanese pronunciation.

The Effectiveness of the Minimal Pairs Technique in Learning Japanese Pronunciation

Distinguishing and pronouncing the sound of sha, sa, ja, za, tsu, double sounds, long sounds, nasal sounds, and youon sounds are still considered difficult for Japanese learners; it is becoming a problem because when the learners cannot distinguish the correct sounds in Japanese, it will result in an inability to pronounce and write Japanese sounds correctly. This study has tested the effectiveness of the minimal pairs technique in learning Japanese pronunciation and the learners's response to the technique. The research employed a quasi-experimental quantitative method by applying the minimal pairs technique to learn Japanese pronunciation in one class, Japanese level N5 or beginner level. The comparative statistical calculation result showed that the Minimal Pairs model is effective in improving Japanese pronunciation in long vowels, double consonants, semi-vowel sounds, tsu sounds, nasal sounds, and also helped the learners’ to understand differences in sa and sha line sounds and the difference between the sounds of the za and ja lines. The questionnaire result showed that the learners feel that the technique is quite tedious, but on the other hand, the technique is beneficial for them in learning and practicing Japanese pronunciation.

An Introduction to Afrikaans Art Songs: A Guide to Lyric Diction

An Introduction to Afrikaans Art Songs: A Guide to Lyric Diction Christian Bester (bio) and Bronwen Forbay (bio) LANGUAGE AND DICTION BASIC AFRIKAANS GRAMMAR The second half of this two-part presentation (see "An Introduction to Afrikaans Art Song Literature: Origins and Repertoire," pp. 471–482) aims to provide singers and teachers with a basic overview of the formation and pronunciation of authentic Afrikaans vowels and consonants. Phonetic transcription rules using the IPA will help guide students and teachers in their correct application. Written Afrikaans utilizes the same twenty-six letters as the English alphabet. Afrikaans sounds closest to Dutch, but uses considerably simpler spellings by comparison, a characteristic that makes it more accessible than many other Germanic languages. Although Afrikaans shares many cognates with English, it is characterized by the frequent use of diminutives (inherited from Dutch), numerous diphthongs, a lack of gender distinction, and simplicity in its verbal system. Verbs are not conjugated, but remain the same within a specific tense regardless of person or number. This particular characteristic makes Afrikaans lyric diction considerably easier to master than other Germanic languages. Afrikaans is predominantly a phonetic language with a limited number of exceptions. Closed syllables are more common than open syllables.1 Where two dissimilar consonants or double consonants separate syllables, the division usually falls between the two consonants, resulting in the first syllable being closed. Exceptions to this rule include the consonant combinations: tr, kw, dr, kl, and kr, which are divided before the initial consonant.2 Word Stress Indigenous Afrikaans words generally receive stress on the first syllable.3 Prefixes and suffixes usually remain unstressed, while the root portion of a word is emphasized.4 Exceptions include either words of foreign origin, borrowed words where stress shifts to the final syllable, or separable compound words where stress shifts to the prefix.5 Since a number of exceptions exist for which no rule can be provided,6 the use of a reliable dictionary such as the Madeline du Plessis et al., Pharos Afrikaans-Engels Woordeboek (Pharos Afrikaans-English Dictionary) published in 2005 is highly recommended. Diacritical Marks The four diacritical marks in Afrikaans are: • Acute accent on é Indicates syllabic stress but does not modify the vowel.7 Example: dié [di] (this/that) [End Page 497] Note: Although the spelling of the example word is almost identical to that of the definite article die (the), the acute accent indicates not only that the syllable is emphasized but also that a different meaning of the word is present. • Grave accent on è Indicates that the vowel is stressed, open, and of long duration.8 It is found mostly over short exclamation words. Incidentally, there are only four indigenous Afrikaans words that are compulsorily written with a grave accent; dè [dɛ:] (take this); hè [ɦɛ:] (really?); nè [nɛ:] (n'est-ce pas?/ isn't it? /not so?/yes?); and appèl [aˈpɛ:l] (appeal).9 • Circumflex accents on ê, î, ô, and û All stress the syllable in which they appear and result in long open vowels pronounced [ɛ:], [ə:], [ɔ:], and [œ:], respectively.10 Examples: sê [sɛ:] (say); wîe [ˈvə:ʱə] (wedge); môre [ˈmɔ:rə] (morning/tomorrow) and brûe [ˈbrœ:ʱə] (bridges). The circumflex accent does not appear above a vowels in Afrikaans.11 • Dieresis This occurs on ë, ï, ö, and ü vowels.12 The accent does not function as a German umlaut as no vowel modification occurs. Called a deelteken [ˈdeᵊlˌteᵊkən] in Afrikaans, it serves as a divisional sign or vowel separator. This diacritical mark ensures that the second vowel in the word is not assimilated into the overall sound, but is sounded separately from the vowel preceding it. Syllabification occurs immediately before the dieresis. As a result, the vowel preceding it is always in an open syllable. Example: oë [ˈo:ᵊǝ] (eyes); haël [ˈɦa:əl] (hail) Note: The dieresis can occur on ä in rare circumstances when "in combination with a preceding a, to indicate the start of a new syllable, such as in lilaägtig, Kanaän, and a number of technical (mostly scientific) terms where a suffix starting with a follows a stem ending on a."13 Example: Aäron [aˈa:ron] Afrikaans Vowel Sounds Afrikaans has five pure vowel sounds...

Nazwiska niemieckie z Reszla z XVI i XVII wieku na litery C–E

This paper aimed to genetically analyse German surnames. The origin of the surnames was established with the use of onomastic dictionaries or lexicons of place names. In the manuscript material under examination, existing variants of the surnames were identified, and an attempt was made to establish the source of their origin, such as the Polonisation of the surnames. Based on two publications, it was determined whether the analysed surnames were preserved until the 18th and 20th centuries. These surnames are derived from: the place of origin, names of localities, given names, names of professions and nicknames. Only six surnames have variants (alternatives). The reasons for surname variants include Polonisation, including the reduction of doubled conso nants in the rime, the omission of the silent h, metathesis and the doubling of consonants without justification. Only six names out of 26 were preserved until the 18th century, and only two until the 20th century.

Orthographe progressive du français par Isabelle Chollet et Jean-Michel Robert

Reviewed by: Orthographe progressive du français par Isabelle Chollet et Jean-Michel Robert Jessica L. Sturm Chollet, Isabelle, et Jean-Michel Robert. Orthographe progressive du français. CLÉ International, 2019 ISBN 978-209-03457-4. Pp. 176 + CD + online content. Orthography in French is nearly as tricky as in English, and one can never have too many handbooks and references on this topic. Orthographe progressive du français is designed as a resource for class or for independent study. Before the table of contents, the authors include a helpful guide to French phonetics with International Phonetic Alphabet symbols, examples, and pronunciation. The text is divided in three sections, l’orthographe grammaticale, l’orthographe d’usage, and les particularités. L’orthographe grammaticale concerns itself with verb conjugations, tenses, moods, adjective endings, words such as tous/tout/e/s, as well as agreement with the past participle and verbs with collective subjects. L’orthographe d’usage addresses pairs of spellings, e.g., -ic/-ique, -ment/-mment, -s/-ss, along with final e (or not), and double consonants. Other aspects of usage include orthographic anomalies, the plural of compound nouns, and the gender and number of certain nouns. Les particularités refers to mechanics such as accent marks, punctuation, capitalization, apostrophes, and numbers. This section also includes prefixes, suffixes, homophones, often mis-spelled words and phrases, and the 1990 orthographic reform. Each section gives examples, explanations, and tricks before providing exercises to apply the material learned. Finally, at the end of each section there is a bilan to review its contents. Along with the paper text, purchase of Orthographe progressive du français includes a CD and access to the online text. With the online text, learners and instructors can find an interactive Table of Contents, use colored highlighting, and take notes or create bookmarks. This in addition to having access anywhere one takes their device(s). The CD provides audio files for the text, including dictées and communicative activities. Each feature of this book works to provide students not just with rules and tips, but tools to encounter new words and phrases in French as they continue their study of the language. As the authors intended, it can enhance a language class as an auxiliary material to the main textbook. For self-study, Orthographe progressive du français will guide the learner to a deeper understanding of French orthography as they work through the material. [End Page 209] Jessica L. Sturm Purdue University (IN) Copyright © 2022 American Association of Teachers of French

The Uniqueness and Attractiveness of the Bima Language Linguistically

This study aims to determine the uniqueness and attractiveness of the Bima language linguistically, this is based on the fact that each regional language experiences its own characteristics. The research method used is qualitative with oral speech data sources, written data and language intuition. The research sample was in Lere Village, Parado District, Bima Regency, West Nusa Tenggara. Results From the study it was found that the Bima language did not have a final consonant in every word, all words in Bima ended with a vowel, even at the beginning of the word using vowels and there were additions or changes to the phonemes in the word. In addition to this, there is the elimination of the final consonant in a name, there are clusters (double consonants) at the beginning of the word. It was also found that words that have the same phoneme have different meanings in Indonesian by adding an apostrophe before the letters b or d. There is a phonemic relationship between nasal consonants in vocabulary. There are phonemes / consonant vocabulary that are interconnected in terms of meaning. Finally, for the clotting pattern in Bima, there are four syllable patterns, namely the (V), (KV), (KVK), and (1/2 KV) patterns. Consonants are not found in the closing syllables so that Bima is classified as a vocal language.

Spelling in Finnish: the case of the double consonant

Because of its regularity, it is relatively easy to learn to read and spell in Finnish. However, a specific hurdle in spelling acquisition seems to be the doubling of consonant letters. In this study on consonant letter doubling spelling in Finnish children (91 Grade 1 and 191 Grade 2 children), we asked two questions. First, are items with double consonant letters (e.g., “kissa” [ˈkisːɑ] ‘cat’) indeed harder to spell than single consonant items (e.g., “kisa” [ˈkisɑ] ‘contest’)? Second, is consonant doubling harder for stop consonants (e.g., “takki” [ˈtɑkːi] ‘coat’) than for continuant consonants (e.g., “kissa” [ˈkisːɑ] ‘cat’)? We found that Finnish children made more errors on items with double consonant letters than on items with single consonant letters and that this effect was larger for stop than for continuant consonant letters. Exploratory analyses showed that these effects were stronger for younger and poorer spellers. Post hoc analyses of the errors made on double consonant items showed that the children predominantly made nonlexical errors (> 90%). When they did make a lexical error, these errors typically did not map on the type of errors that would be expected from a corpus analysis of the higher-frequency orthographic neighbors. Overall, lexical influences on spelling of Finnish children seem to be minimal and unpredictable. We discuss two potential reasons why it is more difficult to spell items with double consonant letters than with single consonant letters and suggest how these could be investigated in future research.

Using of Beylkin Wavelet for Speech Recognition

This paper describes the application of the Beylkin wavelet for speech segmentation. The problem of speech segmentation in the Yakut language is that there are segmentation difficulties due to the peculiarities of the language. The use of long vowels and double consonants in the Yakut language complicates the correct segmentation of oral speech. For the analysis, the window method of analyzing the energy of the wavelet signal is used. The experience of using different wavelet functions has shown that it is not always possible to accurately find the segment boundaries in some cases. The Scilab package has a large library of wavelets that allows extensive research into their applications in speech recognition. The results of the study show that there are difficulties due to various reasons, one of which is the presence of double sonorant consonants. The graphs of the analysis of doubled sonorant consonants are given.

Edition der Kulmer Stadtbücher

The strategic plan of the Copernicus-Vereinigung, a scholarly organisation devoted to the regional history of West Prussia, to edit the four yet unpublished civic registers (Stadtbuch) out of a total of ten surviving from late-medieval Kulm (Chełmno), was motivated to no small degree by the intention of demonstrating that Prussia constituted an integral part of the Hanse. However, the editorial principles employed by the editors of the six volumes which have appeared hitherto were anything but unitary. Hence, it is greatly to be desired that future editors orient themselves according to modern editorial guidelines. Moreover, there is much work to be done on standardizing seemingly minor technical matters: the capitalization of words, the typographical representation of Siamese-twin letters (when to transcribe a scribal mark as ‘sz’ and when as ‘ß’), superimposed letters (ue) and redundant double consonants, on the abbreviations for various currencies and the description of the scribal hands. This article is intended as a contribution towards generating a common set of principles – a standard tool-kit, if you will – for editing Hanseatic civic registers.

Word class and spelling in English.

The spelling of an English word may reflect its part of speech, not just the sounds within it. In 2 preregistered experiments, we asked whether university students are sensitive to 1 effect of part of speech that has been observed by linguists: that content words (e.g., the noun inn) must be spelled with at least 3 letters, whereas function words (e.g., the preposition in) may have only 2 letters. Participants heard VC (vowel-consonant) and consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC; consonant-vowel-consonant) nonwords that were used as nouns (content words) or prepositions (function words). Participants either spelled the items on their own or chose between options with single and double final consonants (e.g., ib vs. ibb). Participants in the choice task favored final consonant doubling for VCs that were used as nouns. They usually chose single final consonants for VCs that were used as prepositions and for CVCs. Effects of word class were also found in the spelling production task. Final consonant doubling was less common in the production task than the choice task, reflecting participants' reluctance to produce this relatively uncommon spelling pattern. Our results support the view that spelling performance reflects the combined influences of multiple patterns, both phonological and nonphonological. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).