Donkey Populations Research Articles

Single-Cell RNA-Seq Revealed the Gene Expression Pattern during the In Vitro Maturation of Donkey Oocytes

Donkeys are an important domesticated animal, providing labor, meat, milk, and medicinal materials for humans. However, the donkey population is continuously declining and even at risk of extinction. The application of modern animal production technology, such as oocyte in vitro maturation, is a promising method to improve the donkey population. In this study, we explore the gene expression patterns of donkey germinal vesicle (GV) and in vitro matured metaphase II (MII) oocytes using single cell RNA-seq of the candidate genes along with the regulatory mechanisms that affect donkey oocyte maturation. We identified a total of 24,164 oocyte genes of which 9073 were significant differentially expressed in the GV and MII oocytes. Further Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis indicated that these genes were associated with the meiotic cell cycle, mitochondrion activity, and N-glycan biosynthesis, which might be the key genes and regulatory mechanisms affecting the maturation of donkey oocytes. Our study provides considerable understanding regarding the maturation of donkey oocytes and serves as a theoretical basis for improving the development of donkey oocytes, which could ultimately benefit the expansion of the donkey population and conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources.

Socio-Economic Contribution of Donkey and Mule Rearing in Haryana (India) – A Review

Animal husbandry plays a vital role in growth of agrarian economy in Haryana and role of livestock is very important for livelihood in the state (Haryana). Equine (Equidae) is a major component of livestock having its four sub groups i.e. horse, pony, donkey and mule. Equine is integral part of animal husbandry as well as agriculture found worldwide and equine power is known equal to engine power. Donkey and mule are major parts of equine family and mainly reared for load carrying, cart pulling and are used as pack animals in Haryana. A great decline has been observed in donkey population during last few years in the state. As per census done by DADF (GOI) donkey population was 63000 in 1997, 8000 in 2003, 4838 in 2007, 2903 in 2012 and 800 in 2019 the state. Similarly decline was also observed in mule population and as per census done by DADF (GOI) mule population was 35000 in 1997, 14000 in 2003, 10600 in 2007, 9009 in 2012 and 2499 in 2019 in Haryana. Mechanization, ignorance of policy makers and social taboo are major factors responsible for decline of population of these animals in Haryana.

Science and Knowledge of Free‐Roaming Donkeys—A Critical Review

ABSTRACTThe emergence of free‐roaming donkey (Equus asinus) populations globally has brought novel challenges for conservationists, land managers, and those concerned about animal welfare. We provide a review of the scientific literature pertaining to the place and role of free‐roaming donkeys from 1950 until 2020. Using quantitative and qualitative techniques, namely categorical and thematic analysis and critical discourse analysis, to review >100 articles, we critically examine the logics and rationales that are used to either support or denounce donkey presence in particular landscapes and discuss their place and role in different ecological contexts. Free‐roaming donkeys are largely understudied and clouded by dichotomous points of view, different conservation agendas, and the presence of other species in donkey habitat. There is an important need for more in‐depth, site‐specific studies on free‐roaming donkeys that draw on tools and techniques from across the social and natural sciences. Such efforts would offer a richer, more holistic, and comprehensive picture of free‐roaming donkeys that consider both human and animal perspectives and the wider environment. This has important implications for generating long‐term sustainable management solutions for free‐roaming donkeys. © 2021 The Authors. The Journal of Wildlife Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of The Wildlife Society.

Genetic diversity and population genetic structure in native Ethiopian donkeys (Equus asinus) inferred from equine microsatellite markers.

We investigated the genetic diversity and population genetic structure of six morphologically distinct Ethiopian donkey populations using 12 equine microsatellite markers. The donkey populations were Abyssinian (AB), Afar (AF), Hararghe (HA), Ogaden (OG), Omo (OM) and Sinnar (SI). Blood samples were collected from 180 genetically unrelated donkeys (30 individuals per population). Population genetic diversity estimates showed that total number and mean number of observed alleles, average observed and expected heterozygosity were 94, 5.208 ± 0.0229, 0.555 ± 0.023 and 0.588 ± 0.022, respectively. Highly significant deficiency in heterozygote was detected within the overall samples (FIS = 0.055 ± 0.021; P < 0.001). Though highly significant (P < 0.001), heterozygote deficiency within populations relative to total population was moderate (FST = 0.046 ± 0.016), suggesting a higher diversity within the populations (95.4%) than between populations. Various genetic distance estimation methods produced a similar topology of un-rooted dendrograms that grouped the overall Ethiopian donkeys into lowland (Ogaden, Omo and Sinnar) and highland (Abyssinian, Afar and Hararghe) genetic lineages. Likewise, Bayesian clustering analysis produced a similar pattern of clustering that was highly concordant with traditional donkey classification systems in Ethiopia.

Entanglement, autonomy and the co-production of landscapes: relational geographies for free-roaming ‘feral’ donkeys (Equus asinus) in a rapidly changing world

For thousands of years, the donkey (Equus asinus) has played an essential role in human society, underpinning the earliest forms of civilisation, facilitating critical trade networks, contributing to agricultural development, construction and mining. However, with the rise of motorised transport and agricultural machinery, the donkey was gradually turned loose in many places, and left free to roam. The emergence of freeroaming donkey populations has brought novel challenges for conservationists, land managers and animal welfarists alike. As non-native species that live and breed independently in large numbers, free-roaming donkeys appear as an ambiguous indeterminate group of wild-domestic creatures that sit uneasily with rapidly changing landscapes, societies and economies. This paper explores the status of free-roaming donkeys and the ongoing tension between the wild and the domestic, including the binary thinking underpins it and produces donkeys as non-native or ‘out of place’. Using a relational approach and paying attention to the various ways in which freeroaming donkeys are entangled and embedded within cultural historical landscapes, this paper suggests how donkeys might be re-examined in terms of their ‘entangled autonomy’, building on recent interventions in ‘wild’ animal geographies and ‘feral’ political ecologies. In doing so, it reframes the debate around the status of freeroaming donkeys and posits an argument for how they might be considered to ‘belong’ or have legitimacy within these landscapes, suggesting that more attention needs to be given to the spaces and places that donkeys create or contribute to, as well as those they disrupt and challenge.

Genetic characterization of donkeys of Braj region of India

The grey type donkeys of Braj region of Uttar Pradesh in India were genetically characterized using ten heterologous microsatellite loci. At these loci the PCR product size ranged from 75-95 bp at locus HTG6 to 251-277 bp at locus COR18. The observed number of alleles varied from 4 (HTG15) to 10 (HTG7 and AHT4) with a mean of 7.50 ± 1.96. The observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.46 (HTG6 and NVHEQ54) to 0.79 (COR18) with a mean of 0.66 ± 0.12. The mean genetic diversity estimate (FIS) was 0.157. When these donkeys were compared on the basis of allelic frequency data at these loci to the brown type donkeys of Ladakh, Spiti and Rayalseema regions in the union territories/states of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, respectively, they clustered independently from these three donkey populations in a dendrogram based on Goldstein’s average square distances indicating their genetic distinctness.

Donkey skin trade: a growing global problem

Growing demand for ejiao – gelatin produced from donkey skin and used in Traditional Chinese Medicine – is putting global donkey populations at risk and threatening the livelihoods of millions of people that depend on them in lower and middle-income countries. Hundreds of thousands of donkeys are slaughtered for their skins and exported annually, mostly from Africa to China. However, the trade is spreading across the globe, including Brazil. This article highlights the appalling welfare conditions for donkeys caught up in both the legal and illegal trade, as well as the effects on vulnerable people and the potential for disease spread and hazards to human health.

Brazilian donkey slaughter and exports from 2002 to 2019

The international demand for donkeys has increased sharply in recent years, motivated by China’s growing interest in producing ejiao (a traditional medicine made from donkey skin) and, in a smaller proportion, donkey meat. Since the Chinese donkey population dropped by 75.4% in the past 25 years, the country has searched for supply in the international market, mainly in Africa and South America. Aiming to understand the participation of Brazil in this scenario, this paper presents and discusses official data on donkey slaughter and donkey meat and skin exports in Brazil from 2002 to 2019. After the recent news reports of donkey trade-related mistreatment in the Brazilian Northeast, the issue has attracted attention from public authorities, the media, and civil society, but it lacked a quantitative description that could give a tangible dimension to the situation. The interpretation of these data is made with the collaboration of qualitative research methods, emphasizing some aspects of human-animal relations.

A Survey of Smallholder Farms Regarding Demographics, Health Care, and Management Factors of Donkeys in Northeastern China.

Essential information on the population dynamics and the health and welfare of Chinese donkeys is scarce. The objectives of this study were to describe the demographic characteristics, management and health care of a sample of donkeys under smallholder farm conditions of northeastern China. A cross-sectional survey of 731 randomly selected donkey owners on smallholder farms (1,658 donkeys) in 40 villages of northeastern China was conducted. Data on the composition and management of the donkeys and their routine health care were analyzed. The surveyed donkey population consisted of mostly (83.8%) jenny/filly donkeys with a mean age of 6.2 ± 5.0 years. Most (91.2%) of the farms kept 1–4 donkeys. The majority of donkeys were used for breeding and labor. Most (93.8%) of the farms did not have bedding, and their mean stable size was 17.7 ± 10.1 m2. All of the animals were turned out for at least part of the year. The mean size of the turnout areas on the farms was 17.8 m2. The condition of 12.5% of the donkeys was evaluated as “poor” with a body condition score of 1 on a scale of 5. More than one third (37.9%) of the donkeys had never been dewormed. Also, none of them were ever vaccinated or received dental care from a veterinarian. Their hoofs were trimmed once (45.9%) or twice (27.6%) a year. Forty percent of the donkeys were reported to suffer from at least one medical problem in the preceding year. The most common medical problems were colic, respiratory disorders and skin conditions. Owners seemed to underestimate some of the most prevalent diseases in donkeys, suggesting that their knowledge of the management of donkeys, including routine healthcare practices should be improved to ensure the health and welfare of donkeys in northeastern China.

The population of donkeys and mules in Brazil according to agricultural censuses from 1960 to 2017

To better understand and manage the population of donkeys and mules, it is essential to know information about its size. In developing countries, these animals are often used as working animals, mainly by poor populations in agricultural and livestock labor, but their use is decreasing in Brazil. Brazilian official data regarding donkeys and mules started to be measured at the agricultural census of 1960 and, from that time, eight agricultural censuses were published. But until the writing of this paper, no scientific paper was dedicated to the analysis of the results of the official agricultural censuses on the population of donkeys and mules in Brazil. Thus, we aim to compile and analyze the official Brazilian data from 1960 until 2017 to enhance the actions of stakeholders, researchers, and decision-makers concerned with Brazilian donkeys and mules.

The development of the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for donkeys

The donkey population has increased in the last 10 years, with an estimated 50 million donkeys currently worldwide. Donkey welfare, meanwhile, is an increasing global concern that receives close public scrutiny. However, multiple challenges are surrounding how donkey welfare is assessed and recorded. The Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) project is the first project, funded by the European Commission, intended to improve donkey welfare by developing a scientifically sound and practical on-farm welfare assessment protocol. The present study describes the procedure for the development of the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for donkeys: 1) selection of promising welfare indicators; 2) research to cover gaps in knowledge; 3) stakeholder consultation; 4) testing the prototype protocol on-farm. The proposed two-level strategy improved on-farm feasibility, while the AWIN donkey app enables the standardized collection of data with prompt results. Although limitations are linked with a relatively small reference population, the AWIN welfare assessment protocol represents the first scientific and standardized approach to evaluate donkey welfare on-farm.

Global donkey and mule populations: Figures and trends

Knowing how many donkeys there are in specific countries where welfare is compromised is a key concern for targeting efforts to improve donkey welfare. Additionally, accurate population estimates are vital for providing evidence and addressing the impact of population threats. The FAO annually report the number of donkeys and mules in each country. The last paper to investigate global and region trends dates back to 2000 and used FAO data from 1961 to 1997. This paper is an update focusing on global, regional and country level donkey and mule populations to understand if there have been any changes in the trends reported by the previous study between 1997 and 2018. Results show that the general trend identified between 1961 and 1997 is continuing with the number of donkeys globally increasing at a rate of ~1% per annum whilst mule populations are in decline at a rate of ~2% per annum. Results also suggest that the trend identified in the original paper are still evident today with the largest increases in donkey population seen in the sub-Saharan African region and greatest reduction noted in Eastern Europe with these two regions having different socio-economic drivers influencing these changes. These results highlight the multifaceted socio-economic drivers influence changes in donkey and mule populations demonstrating the complexity of designing targeted one-welfare approaches. Whilst the FAO donkey and mule datasets are the best available for understanding spatial-temporal distributions in populations there needs to be greater effort to promote the communication of information from the country level to the FAO. This can be directly supported by NGO’s by promoting the robustness of the FAO process for collating and disseminating this information. NGO’s should also seek to highlight the importance of this information for understanding global regional and country level drivers for equid population changes and potential threats to welfare as well as using this information to facilitate projects that support one-welfare approaches.

A reassortant G3P[12] rotavirus A strain associated with severe enteritis in donkeys (Equus asinus)

In contrast to horses, the only evidence suggesting gastrointestinal disease in neonatal donkeys is associated with Group A rotaviruses (RVAs) is the detection of viral antigens by ELISA in just 1 of 82 symptomatic donkey foals. No additional, more comprehensive investigations have been conducted, and RVAs if circulating in donkey populations have not been molecularly characterised. To investigate if RVAs are associated with an outbreak of severe enteritis in neonatal donkeys and if associated determine the genotype(s) along with the phylogenetic relationship to RVA strains circulating in horses. Cross-sectional. RT-PCR-based techniques were used for RVA diagnosis and gene amplification. Statistical significance was determined by Chi-square and Fisher's exact two-sided tests. Genotyping was performed by RotaC and phylogenetic analysis by neighbour joining. In 2019, acute enteritis occurred in 119 of 206 donkey foals (≤4months) at two intensive donkey farms in the Shandong province of China. The highest morbidity (68.1%), mortality (29.5%) and fatality levels (45.5%) occurred in foals in the 30-89day, 30-59day and 0-29day age groups respectively. RVA gene sequences were detected in 107 (89.9%) of the symptomatic individuals while further analysis demonstrated the outbreak was associated with the same G3P[12] RVA strain designated RVA/Donkey-wt/CHN/Don01/2019/G3P[12]. Although the VP4 gene of Don01 exhibited close phylogenetic relationships with equivalent RVA sequences commonly circulating in horses, encoding VP7 was more closely associated with sequences isolated from bats suggesting this new donkey strain arose via an intergenogroup reassortment event. Actual prevalence not determined because <7% of asymptomatic donkey foals were included in this study. The complete genomic sequence of RVA/Donkey-wt/CHN/Don01/2019/G3P[12] remains to be determined. Valuable new information about the molecular epidemiology of rotaviruses in different equid species is provided by isolation and molecular characterisation of a novel RVA strain from neonatal donkeys.

Donkey welfare assessment in north-east Portugal

AbstractThe well-documented versatility of donkeys (Equus africanus asinus) means that issues concerning their welfare can vary depending on how they are mainly used and their geographic location. The present study is the first assessment of donkey welfare to be systematically conducted in the Iberian Peninsula. This area is characterised by the coexistence of high levels of mechanisation and industrialisation, and human populations with low levels of formal education, still making use of donkeys in their daily work. This study aims to evaluate the main welfare problems affecting donkeys within this context. The welfare assessment was carried out in accordance with the first level of the AWIN protocol for donkeys. Only 37.6% of the animals evaluated showed all positive indicators, with no physical problem detected while the remaining 62.4% revealed at least one negative health indicator. Body Condition Score (BCS) was one of the main concerns, with around half of the donkeys exhibiting an inadequate body condition. Dental evaluation revealed similarly concerning results, with 62.8% of the animals assessed requiring treatment. Indications of hoof neglect were noted in 39.5% of the animals evaluated with a 9.84% incidence of lameness. Skin problems affected 26.7% of individuals. Only 41% of the animals displayed positive results for all behavioural indicators. Aside from BCS, the most prevalent problems were sub-optimal behaviour, pain reaction to cheek palpation, hoof disease and integument alterations. These issues should be prioritised, both as regards this specific donkey population and the education of their caretakers.

Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cytological findings in healthy Amiata donkeys.

Background:The approach to respiratory diseases in donkeys is similar to that for horses; nevertheless, Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and tracheal wash cytology in this species have been described only a few times in the literature. Aim:To describe BALF cytological findings in a cohort of 24 healthy Amiata donkeys.Methods:Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was carried out via standing sedation with a large animal where the BAL catheter passed blindly through the nasal passage into the trachea. Results:The total nucleated cell count of the BALF was found similar to that already described in healthy horses and donkeys. No differences in the differential count were observed according to age and sex. A decreased macrophage percentage and an increased eosinophil percentage were observed in our donkey population when compared to the existing reference range for horses. Conclusion:The reference intervals for BAL cytology in donkeys may be significantly different for those referred for horses.

Характеристики на основните телесни измерения при мъжки и женски магарета в България

The donkeys, together with other labor animals (mules and hinnies) are the domestic animals that are losing their popularity continually among the rural population in Bulgaria. For the last decades the population of donkeys in Bulgaria, decreased nearly 10 times, from 328 587 donkey registered in 1990 to 35 000 in 2013. For some obvious reasons they were pushed aside, as in recent times it is much easier for a smallholder farming to cultivate the land with modern machinery than with animal power. Nevertheless, in the last few years many organizations in Europe and even in Bulgaria recall their attention to donkeys as an important genetic resource, an animal that needs to be protected, and revived into the modern times. The objective of the experiment was to estimate and compare the body measurements of male and female donkeys reared in Bulgaria. The coat color of the animals was also recorded in order to estimate the variation of it inside the groups. A total number of 198 donkeys (74 males and 124 females) were included in the study. The animals were located in different regions of Bulgaria. From each individual the main four body measurements were taken: height at the withers, body length, chest circumference and cannon bone circumference. The average height at the withers for male donkeys was 120.40±7.13 cm as for the females it was 119.75±6.83 cm. Body length for males and female was respectively 124.47±7.62 and 123.71±8.01 cm on average. Mean values for chest and cannon bone circumferences for male individuals were 137.08±9.64 and 16.15±1.21 cm, the same traits on female donkeys were on average 134.16±8.11 and 15.65±1.27 cm.

The influence of the sex and height at the withers on pelvis size of donkeys in Austria

During the recent decades, the donkey, as an ever-employed labour animal, is slowly but steadily losing its value. The agricultural industrialization, mechanization of many processes at the mountain and valley farms led to rejection of the donkeys as a livestock. This reduction in donkey numbers evokes some concerns. This fact is a good reason to study all aspects of these domestic animals, in order to revive their role and to restart their livestock growth in the familiar habitat, and bring them into the new environmental conditions. For the recent research, 35 donkeys (23 males and 12 females) were chosen. All animals lived on Styria terrain in Austria. The following morphometric parameters were analysed: height at the withers (VG), pelvis length (DK), pelvis width (SK), and point of buttock width (SSK). For the males, the average height at the withers was 116.70 cm and the average pelvis length – 40.13 cm. The average pelvis width was 38.56 cm, and the average point of buttock width – 16.39 cm. For the females the average height at the withers was 101.48 cm, the average pelvis length – 36.00 cm, pelvis width was 35.41 cm. The average point of buttock width was 13.66 cm. These measurements show the influence of the height at the withers on the development of the pelvis, particularly on its width and height for both males and females. Comparatively to other donkey populations of the world, the Austrian donkey has an average size.

Linear and non-linear regression model fitting of testicular three-dimensional growth in Miranda donkeys

In endangered donkey populations, reproductive performance is one the most important areas to study, provided its connection with conservation opportunities. Among reproductive traits, testicular dimensions, their relationship with body weight and seminal qualitative and quantitative parameters is particularly notable. The aim of the present study was to model the evolution of body weight, testicular length, width and height, volume and gonadosomatic index in Miranda donkeys using in vivo ultrasonography. Data on the aforementioned variables of 23 Miranda donkeys, from 4 to 259 months of age, were fitted to eleven linear and nonlinear models. Cubic function modelling reported the best-fitting properties for almost all variables, except for body weight (sigmoid curve model). Cubic model presented a higher ability to capture interindividual variability (Adj. R2 from 0.795 to 0.922) for testicular height, width, length and volume measurements than the rest of fucntions tested. Bayesian information criterion (BIC) values suggest in vivo ultrasonography may be a rather efficient and accurate tool when predicting for the evolution of testicular volume or gonadosomatic index than three-dimensional testicular measurements. Highlights Cubic functions efficiently model testicular dimensions, volume and composite indices evolution. Ultrasonography objectively, accurately and reproducibly determines testicular volume. Testicular asymmetry physiologically occurs to balance bilateral testicular activity.

Age-related linear and nonlinear modelling of semen quality parameters in Miranda donkeys

In endangered donkey populations, reproductive performance is one the most important areas to study, provided its connection with conservation opportunities. Among reproductive traits, the knowledge on the evolution of seminal qualitative and quantitative parameters may achieve a particular relevance given its implication with improved or more efficient fertility and fecundation chances. The aim of the present study was to model the gonadosomatic index and the quantitative and qualitative seminal parameters along age in Miranda donkeys. Forty semen collections from 8 Miranda donkeys from 2.8 and 21.6 years of age, were fitted to eleven linear and nonlinear models. Cubic function modelling reported the best-fitting properties for almost all variables, except for sperm concentration (exponential model). Cubic model presented a slightly higher ability to capture interindividual variability than less parametrically complex models and more computationally complex models, such as exponential or logarithmic. Senility may course with and larger numbers of abnormal morphology spermatozoa, and also reduced sperm concentration and motility. Highlights Testis reach mature size rapidly which may be ascribed to a breed factor. Age promotes ejaculate volume increase and concentration reduction. Reduced motility may ascribe to increased abnormal morphology spermatozoa. Major age-related changes are linked to testicular functions degeneration.

Scavenging for Ejiao's raw material and the extinction of donkeys in Nigeria

This paper examines the increasing presence of merchants in Northern Nigeria purchasing donkeys in large numbers beyond domestic consumption in parts of Nigeria that eat its meat and drink its milk. Also, this paper examines the economic and social effects on donkey users, especially in rural areas. Theoretically, this paper has adopted a Marxist explanation as the framework of analysis to analyse the trade between China and Nigeria. Methodologically, this paper employed a phenomenological research design under qualitative research where data were obtained from in-depth interviews and key informant interviews in Kebbi, Zamfara and Sokoto States with owners, marketers and users of donkeys in the selected states. This paper found that the areas surveyed witnessed an influx of marketers, foreign and domestic, who were into the business of trading donkeys or its skin. This paper also found that as a result of the high demand for donkeys, the owners preferred to sell their donkeys than domesticate them, because of the mouth-watering price from exporters. The study revealed that the majority of the villagers were not aware of what the exporters used the donkeys for. This is because the Chinese traders or their agents have not established manufacturing in Nigeria where the donkey serves as a raw material for the production of a traditional medicine called ejiao. This paper concludes that villagers are not aware of the cumulative effects of the unprecedented demand for donkey’s skin to produce ejiao and this is evident in the shrinking population of donkeys in Nigeria. This paper recommends that if trading donkeys is not controlled, there is a tendency that the donkey would become extinct in Nigeria, which will have adverse effects on the life of rural dwellers who rely on it for transportation of goods and domesticate it as an asset. Keywords: China, donkey’s skin, ejiao, globalisation, Nigeria, trading.