Domestic Reindeer Research Articles

From wild to domestic reindeer – Genetic evidence of a non-native origin of reindeer pastoralism in northern Fennoscandia

The question of how reindeer pastoralism came about has been the subject of recurrent scientific inquiry from many different disciplines. In order to investigate the genetic traces within a Fennoscandian transition from a predominantly hunting economy to reindeer pastoralism, we obtained sequences from the mitochondrial control region from 193 reindeer samples from several archaeological sites dated between 1000 and 1700 CE in Finnmark County, northern Norway. A comparison with similar data from more recent archaeological sites, including extant domestic reindeer, demonstrates that the mitochondrial genome in Finnmark reindeer has gone through massive genetic replacement since medieval times characterized by a significant loss of native mtDNA haplotypes, together with a significant introduction of new haplotypes. Out of a total number of 62 haplotypes identified in both the modern and archaeological samples, only 14 were detected among samples known to represent domestic reindeer, while nine of these haplotypes were completely absent from the more ancient sites. Our documentation of a major genetic shift during the 16th and 17th centuries suggests that non-native animals were introduced during this period, at the same time as the transition to reindeer pastoralism took place.

ПОЛИМАСШТАБНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ ДИНАМИКИ ДОМАШНЕГО ОЛЕНЕВОДСТВА В АРКТИЧЕСКИХ РЕГИОНАХ: ТЕРРИТОРИАЛЬНЫЕ СДВИГИ, ВНУТРИРЕГИОНАЛЬНЫЕ И ЛОКАЛЬНЫЕ РАЗЛИЧИЯ

The paper presents a multiscale analysis of the development of domestic reindeer breeding in the Russia’s Arctic regions. The factors that have the strongest impact on the dynamics of the reindeer number at different spatial levels (national, regional, local) are revealed. The reasons for the territorial shift of domestic reindeer breeding in the Russian Federation in the western tundra zone and the reasons for the loss of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug leadership in the reindeer number in the post-Soviet period are established. On the case of the okrug intraregional shifts (on municipal districts) and the factors causing them (economic, political, climatic, social and cultural) are revealed. By the example of the okrug, intraregional shifts (on municipal districts) and the factors causing them (economic, political and institutional, climatic, social and cultural) are revealed. For the first time, information on all reindeer farms in Chukotka was systematized and generalized, which allowed studying the features of the post-Soviet transformation of individual enterprises. The local peculiarities of development of the sector were investigated in detail based on the data of field investigations in the farms of the okrug (the settlements of Neshkan, Konergino, Tavaivaam). It is concluded that the trends of the reindeer number in Chukotka at all spatial levels during the economic crisis were synchronous with the general economic situation in the country, but such a close relationship is not observed in the years of relatively stable development. Intraregional and local contrasts and differences in the sector intensify during the crisis and, conversely, weaken during the period of stabilization and growth.

Polymorphism of the mtDNA Control Region in Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) from the Mainland of the Northeastern Part of European Russia

Based on an analysis of the polymorphism of nucleotide sequences (n = 103) of the hypervariable fragment of the mtDNA control region (D-loop), the genetic diversity of wild and domestic reindeer from the mainland of the European Northeast of Russia (eastern parts of Arkhangelsk oblast, Komi Republic, and the Nenets Autonomous Okrug) was studied. Relatively high values of genetic diversity indices were detected. Phylogenetic analysis showed close relationships between reindeer of the study region and those of the tundra zone of Siberia. The influence of domestic reindeer on the formation of the genetic diversity of the wild reindeer was considered as negligible. Genetic lines belonging to an extinct group of forest reindeer from the Nizhny Novgorod region were found among the modern groups of reindeer from the European Northeast of Russia.

Maintaining genetic integrity of coexisting wild and domestic populations: Genetic differentiation between wild and domestic Rangifer with long traditions of intentional interbreeding.

This study investigates the genetic effect of an indigenous tradition of deliberate and controlled interbreeding between wild and domestic Rangifer. The results are interpreted in the context of conservation concerns and debates on the origin of domestic animals. The study is located in Northeastern Zabaĭkal'e, Russia at approximately 57 degrees North latitude. Blood and skin samples, collected from wild and domestic Rangifer, are analyzed for their mtDNA and microsatellite signatures. Local husbandry traditions are documented ethnographically. The genetic data are analyzed with special reference to indigenous understandings of the distinctions between local domestic types and wild Rangifer. The genetic results demonstrate a strong differentiation between wild and domestic populations. Notably low levels of mtDNA haplotype sharing between wild and domestic reindeer, suggest mainly male‐mediated gene flow between the two gene pools. The nuclear microsatellite results also point to distinct differences between regional domestic clusters. Our results indicate that the Evenki herders have an effective breeding technique which, while mixing pedigrees in the short term, guards against wholesale introgression between wild and domestic populations over the long term. They support a model of domestication where wild males and domestic females are selectively interbred, without hybridizing the two populations. Our conclusions inform a debate on the origins of domestication by documenting a situation where both wild and domestic types are in constant interaction. The study further informs a debate in conservation biology by demonstrating that certain types of controlled introgression between wild and domestic types need not reduce genetic diversity.

Research on Human and Reindeer Relations in Southern Yakutia [Sakha Republic

The article presents materials derived from field research among the reindeer-herding Evenki of Tiania nasleg, Olëkmo raion, of the Sakha Republic [Yakutia] in April–May 2013. The aim of the journey was to study local strategies of interaction between humans and domesticated reindeer, as well as the knowledge of local inhabitants about wild and domesticated reindeer. Particular attention was devoted to the architecture of domestication—various structures built to restrict or guide the movement of reindeer.

A Tale of Two Reindeer: Pastoralism and Preservation in the Soviet Arctic

This paper explores the parallel histories of two institutions in the Soviet north: the Lapland Nature Reserve just west of Lake Imandra on the Kola Peninsula and the neighboring Red Pulozero collective farm. Both created in the throes of Stalinism in the early 1930s, the former aimed to restore wild reindeer on a protected parcel of land and the latter sought to turn a small Sami community into practitioners of socialist reindeer herding. Over time the relationship between these reindeer pastoralists and preservationists vacillated from mutual assistance to mutual antagonism. Sami herders provided essential knowledge for the conservation program but later found their domestic reindeer roaming on the territory of the reserve. Conservationists hired Sami staff but later accused them of poaching wild reindeer. In the end these tensions contributed to the closure of the collective farm in the early 1960s and appropriation of Pulozero reindeer by veterinary scientists.

Genetic diversity of wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus L. from the eastern part of the Kola Peninsula: Polymorphism of the mtDNA control region

Based on the results of the analysis of nucleotide sequence polymorphism in the hypervariable fragment (left domain) of the mtDNA control region (D loop), the genetic diversity of wild reindeer from the eastern part of the Kola Peninsula (Murmansk oblast, Terskii region) was studied. Low values of the genetic diversity indices for Eurasian wild reindeer were detected. The effect of domestic reindeer breeding on the development of genetic diversity of the wild reindeer population in the studied region (indicating a low degree of hybridization of domesticated and wild reindeer) was estimated.

Towards a process-based biogeography of reindeer—scaling space, time, and organizational levels of space use

ABSTRACTDue to increasing anthropogenic habitat alteration, fragmentation, and loss, the analysis of how, when, and why animals select particular habitats has become a central issue in ecology and biogeography. Animals adapt to spatiotemporal variability in resources either by tracking these resources or by plasticity in behavior to cover their needs, leading to three important implications: movement, temporal variation, and individual trade-offs leading to intra-species variability, all of which are directly linked to the use of space by animals. Based on GPS-tracking of domesticated reindeer in southern Norway, the authors addressed these issues by analyzing movement patterns and space use simultaneously across different temporal and organizational scales. Emerging information about the space use by reindeer was found explicitly linked to scaling relations, reflecting the matter of scale as having important functional implications rather than solely being a technical question of extent and resolution. Adding movement into the analysis of space use further advances the necessary functional perspective on space use. The authors conclude that scaling not only space but also time and the organizational level, in combination with accounting for different behavioral states, brings biogeography closer to a process-based view, rather than solely pattern-based view.

Emergent Rainy Winter Warm Spells May Promote Boreal Predator Expansion into the Arctic

Climate change has been characterized as the most serious threat to Arctic biodiversity. In addition to gradual changes such as climate warming, extreme weather events, such as melting temperatures in winter and rain on snow, can have profound consequences for ecosystems. Rain-on-snow events lead to the formation of ice layers in the snow pack, which can restrict access to forage plants and cause crashes of herbivore populations. These direct impacts can have cascading effects on other ecosystem components, often mediated by trophic interactions. Here we document how heavy rain in early winter, leading to the formation of a thick layer of ice, was associated with dramatic mortality of domestic reindeer on Yamal Peninsula, Russia. In the subsequent summer, breeding of two boreal generalist predators, red fox and Hooded Crow, was recorded for the first time in a monitoring area in the Low Arctic tundra of this region. We suggest that the resource pulse created by the abnormally high reindeer mortality and abundance of carrion may have facilitated these breeding events north of the known breeding range of the two species. Our observations provide an example of how specific emergent weather events may indirectly pave the way for more abrupt, although possibly temporary, species range changes.

Seasonality and human disturbance alter brown bear activity patterns: implications for circumpolar carnivore conservation?

Wildlife may adapt activity patterns to daily and seasonal variations in environmental factors and human activity. At the daily scale, diurnal or nocturnal activity can be a response to variations in food availability and/or human avoidance. At the seasonal scale, variation in prey vulnerability underlies the influence of predators on prey population dynamics, which is of management concern when predation affects domestic species. We analyzed the movement patterns of 133 GPS-collared brown bears in three study areas in Sweden in spring, when bears prey on the calves of domestic reindeer and moose, and in summer–early fall, when bears rely mostly on berries, in three areas with a gradient of human disturbance. In spring, the bears' daily movement patterns and time of predation on ungulates overlapped. In summer–early fall, when bears are hyperphagic to store fat for hibernation and reproduction, variation in the degree of nocturnal behavior among study areas likely reflected behavioral adjustments to reduce the risk of encountering people. Flexibility in daily movement patterns by large carnivores may help them survive in human-dominated landscapes, but behavioral changes may also reflect environmental degradation, for example human disturbance influencing foraging opportunities. Diurnal human activity disturbs the carnivores, but that does not hinder depredation on reindeer, because it occurs mostly at night. Thus, ideally carnivores and reindeer should be separated spatially to reduce depredations. A zoning system prioritizing carnivore conservation and reindeer herding in different areas might help reduce a long-lasting conflict.

Extensive borrowing of reindeer terminology in north-eastern Siberia

This paper presents borrowings, mostly related to reindeer husbandry in the far northeastern Siberian area, between several non-genealogically affiliated languages. The semantics, phonology and chronology are discussed. The following are etymologized as Ewenki borrowings: Yukaghiric moll’e ‘small wild reindeer’, oŋul ‘reindeer’, šaqala ‘fox’, ugur ‘spine’ and joγul ‘nose’; and (Pre-)Yakut borrowings: Yukaghiric saa-laaγare ‘south, lit. tree left’, saaγare ‘left side of a yurt; West’, šajγəәr ‘aside’. A possible Turkic borrowing is found with (Proto-)Turkic *qan ‘blood’ – Proto-Samoyed *ke̬ m ‘blood’. Lastly, Uralic cognates or borrowings in Yukaghiric consist of kedie- ‘obstinate (of a tied reindeer)’, petčigije ‘reins’, a:čəә ‘domestic reindeer’ and sierdiid-ile ‘reindeer not selected for slaughter’.

МОНИТОРИНГ ГЕЛЬМИНТОФАУНЫ ЖЕЛУДОЧНО-КИШЕЧНОГО ТРАКТА ДОМАШНЕГО СЕВЕРНОГО ОЛЕНЯ НА ТЕРРИТОРИИ ТАЙМЫРСКОГО ДОЛГАНО-НЕНЕЦКОГО МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОГО РАЙОНА

МОНИТОРИНГ ГЕЛЬМИНТОФАУНЫ ЖЕЛУДОЧНО-КИШЕЧНОГО ТРАКТА ДОМАШНЕГО СЕВЕРНОГО ОЛЕНЯ НА ТЕРРИТОРИИ ТАЙМЫРСКОГО ДОЛГАНО-НЕНЕЦКОГО МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОГО РАЙОНА

State and trends of reindeer breeding in the arctic region of Russia

The role and specifics of reindeer breeding as the main sector of the traditional economy in the North are shown. The advantages and drawbacks of different reindeer management systems are considered. The formation and development of reindeer breeding in Komi are shown. The Komi-Izhemsk system of reindeer breeding and its advantages are described. The fodder base of reindeer pastures is considered. The dynamics and the share of domestic reindeer livestock in the federal subjects of the North are examined. The state of reindeer breeding before and during Russia’s market reforms is studied. The implementation of the target program “Reindeer Development in the Komi Republic (2011–2015)” is analyzed. The problems with reindeer breeding in the region due to the absence of federal law thereof and unregulated interregional relations for controlling the state pastures are identified. The intensive and extensive factors of the development of reindeer breeding are studied. To save depleted tundra and forest tundra pastures from degradation, the basics for development of reindeer breeding in the taiga of northern Komi are given. The administrative experience of the Inta Pripolyarnaya Agricultural Complex in reindeer breeding is generalized. Directions for developing forest reindeer breeding and solving the social problems of reindeer breeders are proposed. The role of the government of the Komi Republic is shown in promoting the federal law “On Reindeer Breeding in the Russian Federation,” which allocates forest sites to reindeer breeding farms, encourages the construction of a base for processing reindeer breeding products, and envisages reindeer breeding tourism.

Reindeer herding and environmental change in the Oymyakon District, Sakha Republic

The aim of this study is to assess the influence of environmental change on reindeer herding in the Oymyakon District in the eastern part of the Sakha Republic. To investigate environmental change and its influence on reindeer herding, semi-structured interviews were conducted at two villages in the Oymyakon District, from February 24th to March 8th, 2013. As a result of the interview, meteorological, topographical, and ecological changes and their influence on general livelihood were evaluated by local residents to a greater or lesser degree. Part of the climatic changes felt by local residents was supported meteorological data set. Generally speaking, local reindeer herders and a manager of reindeer herding enterprise did not think these climatic, topographical and biological impacts were serious problems for reindeer herding. More serious problems, in their consideration, were social and economic difficulties. Judging from these results and the fluctuation of the number of domestic reindeer, even though meteorological variables are gradually changing, serious environmental changes have not generally been noted by local residents as yet. It can be concluded that the environmental changes do not appear to have exerted intense harmful influences on reindeer herding in Oymyakon District so far.

Reindeer introgression and the population genetics of caribou in southwestern Alaska.

Alaska caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) in southwestern Alaska are a poorly understood system, with differing descriptions of their regional population structure, population abundance that has varied greatly through time and instances of the release of domestic reindeer (R. t. tarandus) into their range. Here, we use 21 microsatellites and 297 individuals to investigate the genetic population structure of herds and examine for population bottlenecks. Then, using genetic characteristics of existing reindeer populations, we examine introgression into the wild caribou populations. Caribou of the area are genetically diverse (H E between 0.69 and 0.84), with diversity decreasing along the Alaska Peninsula (AP). Using G ST and Jost's D, we find extensive structuring among all herds; Migrate-n finds that AP herds share few effective migrants with other herds, with Southern AP and Unimak Island herds having the least. Bayesian clustering techniques are able to resolve all but Denali and Mulchatna caribou herds. Using a conservative assignment threshold of q reindeer ≥ 0.2, 3% of caribou show signs of domestic introgression. Denali herd has the most introgressed individuals (6.9%); those caribou herds that were historically adjacent to smaller reindeer herds, or were historically without adjacent herding, show no admixture. This domestic introgression persists despite the lack of managed reindeer in the region since the 1940s. Our results suggest that despite previous movement data indicating metapopulation-like dispersal in this region, there may be unknown barriers to reproduction by dispersing individuals. Finally, our results support findings that wild and domestic Rangifer can hybridize and show this introgression may persist dozens of generations after domestics are no longer present.

The Hardangervidda wild reindeer herd: a problematic management history

The unique and internationally important wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus herd on the Hardangervidda plateau of southern Norway has shown frequent and extreme fluctuations in harvest numbers for the past 60 years, despite considerable effort to stabilize the herd size at a winter carrying capacity of 9000 – 12 000 animals . In the absence of large mammalian predators, herd size is managed through hunting. Here we attempt to unravel the causes of the management problems related to this population by examining the relative roles of historical, biological and management-related processes. From 1900 - 1950 the population remained mainly low due to a combination of generous harvest quotas, poaching and competition from domestic reindeer. From 1950 - 2012 three extreme harvest peaks of between 4500 - 9500 animals occurred, followed by three equally extreme troughs including two shorter periods of total protection. This extreme harvest fluctuation contrasts with the estimated annual harvest of 2300 - 3000 needed to stabilize the winter herd between 9000 - 12 000 animals. We conclude that this population has been difficult to manage mainly because of 1) a management based on frequently unreliable population data on herd size (especially before 2001), 2) lack of in depth analyses and evaluation of both recruitment and sex and age composition and 3) a low and highly variable harvest success (harvest/quota) due mainly to poor hunter mobility, a disadvantage when reindeer must be harvested from large flocks that constantly move upwind, seeking refuge on small areas with few hunters. More reliable population data to create better harvest models plus increased hunter mobility are necessary to attain a more sustainable herd size, implying an improvement of the current herd survey methodology available to local reindeer boards. Finally, a critical and independent evaluation of the scientific methodology employed to study and manage this herd is needed.

Ancient DNA reveals prehistoric habitat fragmentation and recent domestic introgression into native wild reindeer

Introgression and admixture from domestic or foreign conspecifics into wild populations are of great concern in wildlife conservation. The issue is of particular interest in ungulates where translocations and re-introductions have been common practice. In Europe, the only large remaining wild populations of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.) are found in the mountainous habitats of southern Norway. These populations have during the last centuries been exposed to extensive habitat modifications and periods of contact with domestic reindeer. Through analyses of ancient and extant mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) we document extensive intra- and inter-population genetic changes during the last millennium. Our data indicate population reduction within a short time interval during the 11th–12th century during a period when mass trapping of reindeer was common. Significant differentiation between the ancient herds suggests an ancient genetic structuring of the reindeer herds in southern Norway, although not as strong as between modern herds. Two different mtDNA lineages characterized the ancient herds. A Bayesian approach to reconstruct the recent evolutionary history suggests that the reindeer herds in southern Norway originate from two populations separated in different refugia during the last glacial period. The presence of two additional extant lineages, characteristic of domestic herds, suggests substantial introgression into the native wild reindeer. The putatively different refugial origins of the lineages represented by the extant herds in Rondane/Dovre, Hardangervidda and those with a mainly domestic origin may well reflect different adaptations to environmental conditions, including degree of human interference. Further research on this issue would provide important insights for conservation priorities and a sustainable and flexible management strategy for the remaining wild reindeer herds in the Scandinavian mountains.

Do human activity and infrastructure disturb domesticated reindeer? The need for the reindeer’s perspective

In recent decades, human–Rangifer (reindeer and caribou) interactions have increasingly been studied from a scientific perspective. Many of the studies have examined Norwegian wild reindeer or caribou in North America. It is often questioned whether results from these studies can be applied to reindeer in managed herds, as these animals have been exposed to domestication and are also more used to humans. In order to examine the domesticated reindeer’s reactions to various disturbance sources, we reviewed 18 studies of the effects of human activity and infrastructure on 12 populations of domesticated reindeer and compared these to studies on wild reindeer and caribou; based on this, we discuss the effects of domestication and tameness on reindeer responses to anthropogenic disturbance. We also consider the relevance of spatial and temporal scales and data collection methods when evaluating the results of these studies. The reviewed studies showed that domesticated reindeer exhibit avoidance behaviours up to 12 km away from infrastructure and sites of human activity and that the area they avoid may shift between seasons and years. Despite a long domestication process, reindeer within Sami reindeer-herding systems exhibit similar patterns of large-scale avoidance of anthropogenic disturbance as wild Rangifer, although the strength of their response may sometimes differ. This is not surprising since current Sami reindeer husbandry represents an extensive form of pastoralism, and the reindeer are not particularly tame. To obtain a true picture of how reindeer use their ranges, it is of fundamental importance to study the response pattern at a spatial and temporal scale that is relevant to the reindeer, whether domesticated or wild.

Antler casting in relation to parturition in semi-domesticated female reindeer

We investigated the timing of the right and left antler casting in semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) in relation to parturition using 139 antlered adult individually marked females in 2008-09 between May 5 and June 2; a period when all calves were born and all females cast their antlers. We analysed time of casting of right and left antler in relation to pregnancy, female age and body weight, weight and sex of the calf, and birth date. Seven of the females were non-pregnant (barren) and cast their antlers during the second week of May and at the same time as some of the females that gave birth initiated antler casting. Postpartum retention of antlers varied from 0 to 15 days. We found no difference between left and right antler casting schedule and within two days apart, 91% of the females had cast both antlers. The maximum number of antler castings per day occurred on the seventh day after parturition. Of the 132 females that gave birth, 7 females (5.3%) cast both antlers 5 – 23 days before calving, three females cast right antler 6 – 10 days before and the left antler 2 – 5 days after calving and one female that bore only a left antler casted a day before calving. Antler casting among lactating females was related only to female age, indicating that older females cast antlers earlier than younger females (i.e. 3 days earlier than the pooled mean of 7.6 days). Apart from calving date being two days later among the 7 females that alternated their casting schedule, female body weights, calf sex and calf birth weight among them did not differ between the two years. We conclude that it is a small but consistent antler casting overlap between barren and pregnant/lactating females, indicating that the control mechanism for casting of antlers is not “fool proof” and that antler status prior to parturition does not accurately predict pregnancy status in this domestic reindeer group.

ОСОБЕННОСТИ ОЛЕНЕВОДСТВА И ТЕНДЕНЦИИ В ИЗМЕНЕНИИ ПОГОЛОВЬЯ ДОМАШНИХ ОЛЕНЕЙ В РЕСПУБЛИКЕ САХА (ЯКУТИЯ)

В данной проблеме раскрывается суть устойчивого развития традиционных отраслей оленеводства в Республике Саха (Якутия). Основной задачей в увеличении поголовья оленей является воспроизводство стада оленей в оленеводческих хозяйствах.