Domestic Swimming Pools Research Articles

Child drowning mortality in Israel: Trends and measures for prevention

Introduction: In this study, we use the media-based database of Beterem-Safe Kids Israel, to provide a 15-year review of unintentional fatal childhood drowning in Israel, between 2008 and 2022. Method: It total, we identified 257 cases of child mortality due to drowning during this period. Results: Our results demonstrate a gradual rise in childhood mortality due to drowning, from 72 cases in 2008–2012, to 85 cases in 2013–2017, and to 100 cases in 2018–2022. Especially worth noting is the increase in childhood drowning in domestic swimming pools. We point to a link between low socioeconomic status and cases of drowning, showing that the risk of drowning extends beyond a mere matter of caregiver inattention. We recommend a series of regulatory and legislative steps to reduce fatal childhood drowning, including fencing built around domestic swimming pools, extending lifeguard activity hours, adding declared beaches, forming programs of safe behavior in water environments for adolescents, and establishing swimming lessons during the 2nd grade, for all populations. We further recommend that a special focus will be put in municipalities situated at the bottom of the socioeconomic index.

Energy, exergy and environmental-based design and multiobjective optimization of a novel solar-driven multi-generation system

In this study, energy, exergy and environmental-based design and multiobjective optimization of a novel solar-driven gas turbine-based multi-generation system is performed. For this purpose, a novel multi-generation system composed of a solar tower-driven gas turbine cycle, a Kalina cycle, an organic Rankine cycle, a single effect absorption refrigeration cycle, an electrolyzer and two domestic hot water heaters is developed. The system can produce electricity, heating and cooling for residential applications, domestic hot water, hydrogen and swimming pool heating, simultaneously from a single renewable energy source. A novel performance indicator, exergetic quality factor (EQF), for performance comparison and multiobjective optimization of multi-generation systems is also introduced. The system is analyzed with energy, exergy, EQF, environmental and exergoenvironmental measures. A detailed parametric study is also performed to analyze the effect of varying design parameters on the performance of the proposed system. The results show that the proposed system has 55.57%, 39.45% and 50.83% of energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, and EQF values, respectively; and inclusion of EQF into multiobjective optimization improves the multi-generation system performance.

Photometric Sensing of Active Chlorine, Total Chlorine, and pH on a Microfluidic Chip for Online Swimming Pool Monitoring.

A microfluidic sensor was studied for the photometric detection of active chlorine, total chlorine, and pH in swimming pool samples. The sensor consisted of a four-layer borosilicate glass chip, containing a microchannel network and a 2.2 mm path length, 1.7 μL optical cell. The chip was optimised to measure the bleaching of methyl orange and spectral changes in phenol red for quantitative chlorine (active and total) and pH measurements that were suited to swimming pool monitoring. Reagent consumption (60 μL per measurement) was minimised to allow for maintenance-free operation over a nominal summer season (3 months) with minimal waste. The chip was tested using samples from 12 domestic, public, and commercial swimming pools (indoor and outdoor), with results that compare favourably with commercial products (test strips and the N,N′-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD) method), precision pH electrodes, and iodometric titration.

Ordered mesoporous carbon as sorbent for the extraction of N-nitrosamines in wastewater and swimming pool water

The analysis and determination of N-nitrosamines (NAs) in water samples are challenging and demanding. In this study, a simple, reliable, and practical methodology is reported for the quantitative determination by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with electron impact ionization (EI) and triple quadrupole analyzer (GC-EI-MS/MS) of eight NAs after micro-solid-phase extraction (μ-SPE) from wastewater and swimming pool water. Thirty milligram of an ordered mesoporous carbonaceous material, oxidative surface-modified CMK-3, enclosed within a porous polypropylene membrane bag, were used as sorbent for μ-SPE. A central composite design approach was applied to optimize the μ-SPE parameters. An isotopically-labeled NA was used as internal standard. Under the optimized conditions, μ-SPE-GC-EI-MS/MS was validated for an NA concentration range of between 0.1–100ng/mL. The precision of the method was evaluated and an average relative standard deviation of 4.8% (n=8) for a standard solution spiked at 50ng/mL of each NA was obtained. The limits of detection were measured to be in the range of 0.005–0.283ng/mL. Domestic wastewater and swimming pool water samples were used to evaluate the applicability of the method. NAs were detected in swimming pool water and wastewater at concentrations of <2ng/mL and 11ng/mL, respectively.

수영장 안전수칙 실태 및 문제점 분석을 통한 안전수칙 제안에 관한 연구

The purpose of this study is to propose a safety guideline for swimming pools. Firstly, we analyzed the safety rules and safety accidents of domestic and foreign swimming pools. After analyzing the safety rules that can cope with reality through the analysis of the previous research, we suggest the safety rules of the pool. First, pool safety rules must be divided into internal and external use. Details are shown in Table 5. Second, legal proposals to apply pool safety rules are; A) Attachment location , size and color should be mandatory. B) It is necessary to establish a legal basis for the installation of several more safety measures in the pool. C) Based on so-called “the seven principles of pool safety rules”, you will have to fill in additional information that meets the requirements of each facility. D) Emergency kits and rescue equipment must be installed. E) The part of entrance capacity should be presented according to facilities, objects and programs. Third, the pool safety rules infrastructure proposals to apply the pool safety rules are; A )The swimming pool facilities are to be maintained. B) A database is required for pool accidents. C) It is needed to install swimming pool rescue equipment. D) Maintenance of emergency kit in the swimming pool is necessary. E) Swimming pool safety center should be installed throughout the swimming pool facility. F) A culture that thoroughly educates pool safety at home, school, society and field should be settled.

HOLE: Swimming ... Floating ... Sinking ... Drowning

The body in the swimming pool as metonym for trouble in paradise is a recurrent motif bordering on cliché in Hollywood/West Coast sunshine noir. Through an intermedial survey of film, TV and literary fiction, photography, design and architectural history, crime and environmental, reportage, public health and safety documents this article examines the domestic swimming pools ambiguous status as a symbol of realised utopia within the Californian mythos from the boom years of the backyard oasis in the wake of the Second World War to the era of mass foreclosures, restricted water usage and ambient dread inaugurated by 9/11, the global recession and the severest drought in the states recorded rainfall history.

Risk Factors for Campylobacteriosis of Chicken, Ruminant, and Environmental Origin: A Combined Case-Control and Source Attribution Analysis

BackgroundCampylobacteriosis contributes strongly to the disease burden of food-borne pathogens. Case-control studies are limited in attributing human infections to the different reservoirs because they can only trace back to the points of exposure, which may not point to the original reservoirs because of cross-contamination. Human Campylobacter infections can be attributed to specific reservoirs by estimating the extent of subtype sharing between strains from humans and reservoirs using multilocus sequence typing (MLST).Methodology/Principal FindingsWe investigated risk factors for human campylobacteriosis caused by Campylobacter strains attributed to different reservoirs. Sequence types (STs) were determined for 696 C. jejuni and 41 C. coli strains from endemic human cases included in a case-control study. The asymmetric island model, a population genetics approach for modeling Campylobacter evolution and transmission, attributed these cases to four putative animal reservoirs (chicken, cattle, sheep, pig) and to the environment (water, sand, wild birds) considered as a proxy for other unidentified reservoirs. Most cases were attributed to chicken (66%) and cattle (21%), identified as the main reservoirs in The Netherlands. Consuming chicken was a risk factor for campylobacteriosis caused by chicken-associated STs, whereas consuming beef and pork were protective. Risk factors for campylobacteriosis caused by ruminant-associated STs were contact with animals, barbecuing in non-urban areas, consumption of tripe, and never/seldom chicken consumption. Consuming game and swimming in a domestic swimming pool during springtime were risk factors for campylobacteriosis caused by environment-associated STs. Infections with chicken- and ruminant-associated STs were only partially explained by food-borne transmission; direct contact and environmental pathways were also important.Conclusion/SignificanceThis is the first case-control study in which risk factors for campylobacteriosis are investigated in relation to the attributed reservoirs based on MLST profiles. Combining epidemiological and source attribution data improved campylobacteriosis risk factor identification and characterization, generated hypotheses, and showed that genotype-based source attribution is epidemiologically sensible.

Achieving compliance with pool fencing legislation in New Zealand: how much progress has been made in 10 years?

The objective of this study was to assess current levels of enforcement and compliance with the Fencing of Swimming Pools Act 1987, and to determine if enforcement activity and compliance has changed since 1997. A postal questionnaire was sent to all of 73 territorial authorities in New Zealand. Main outcome measures include number and rates of swimming pools (per 1000 dwellings and per 1000 population); mean number of building consents and code compliance certificates issued for pools per territorial authority; mean number of pool inspections made per territorial authority; and the proportion of pools complying with the requirements of the Act. There was around a 9% increase in the prevalence of domestic swimming pools in New Zealand, from 46 pools/1000 dwellings in 1997 to 50 pools/1000 dwellings in 2006 was observed. There has been a 65% increase in the proportion of pools reported as complying with the Act. The proportion of authorities reporting a programme of re-inspection for domestic swimming pools increased from 28% in 1997 to 63% in 2006. There has also been an increase in the proportion of domestic swimming pools recorded as complying with the Act. Finally, a considerable improvement in the enforcement and monitoring activities of territorial authorities in New Zealand was found.

Toddler drowning in domestic swimming pools

Aims—To identify how toddlers who drowned gained access to private swimming pools; to recommend preventive strategies to reduce the incidence of toddler drowning and near drowning. Method—The study reviewed critically...

Achieving compliance with pool fencing legislation in New Zealand: a survey of regulatory authorities

Objectives—To identify the status of compliance and enforcement of New Zealand's Fencing of Swimming Pools Act (FOSP Act), 10 years after its introduction, and to identify methods for improving both...

The Springboard in the Pond: An Intimate History of the Swimming Pool

Although others have written eloquently on the relationship of water to built form, until now no one has investigated the swimming pool as a quintessentially modern and American space, reflecting America's infatuation with hygiene, skin, and recreation. In The Springboard in the Pond, Thomas van Leeuwen looks at a familiar hole--the domestic swimming pool--and discovers an icon indispensable to the reading of twentieth-century modernism.At one level, the book is a rereading of modern architecture that will leave that story permanently altered. At another level, it is the story of the origin and evolution of the private swimming pool as a building type and cultural artifact. And at still another level, it is a material philosophy of water. Van Leeuwen explores the human relationship to water from a variety of viewpoints: social, religious, artistic, sexual, psychological, technical, and above all architectural. Throughout the book, he weaves a series of analogies to three emblematic animals--frog, swan, and penguin--that represent the three prevailing human attitudes toward water: hydrophilia, hydrophobia, and ambivalence. The books many illustrations--drawings, plans, and photographs--come from an unusual variety of sources, creating what is surely the most provocative visual archive of the swimming pool ever assembled.This book is the second in a planned tetralogy by the author, with each volume centered on the relationship of architecture to one of the four classical elements: sky, water, fire, and earth. The first volume was The Skyward Trend of Thought: The Metaphysics of the American Skyscraper (MIT Press, 1988). The third volume, Columns of Fire: Architecture and Destruction, is currently in preparation.

Caregiver factors and pool fencing: an exploratory analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the relationship between caregiver characteristics and the adequacy of domestic swimming pool fencing. SETTING: A typical metropolitan area of a large Australian capital city, Brisbane. METHODS: From...

Chlorophenols in the terrestrial environment.

Chlorophenols are presently widespread in the environment. Even in the most remote natural environments, the presence of chlorophenols in both aquatic and terrestrial food chains has been recorded. These pervasive compounds have been used for a wide range of domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes for more than 50 years. In addition to industrial production and usage, chlorophenols are produced from naturally occurring phenols as a result of chlorine bleaching of wood pulp in the paper industry and through the chlorination of domestic water supplies and swimming pools. It must be emphasized that chlorophenols, although a local problem in some areas, generally cannot be considered a major environmental problem today because their use is prohibited or restricted in many countries. Future reduction in the use of the herbicidal phenoxy acids will further minimize their levels in the terrestrial environment. Because of the long persistence and high toxicity of pentachlorophenol in particular, however, it is important that the discharge of chlorophenols to the terrestrial environment by way of sewage sludge or pulp mill effluents be maintained at their current levels or even reduced to lower levels.

The design and safety of swimming pool covers

Abstract Drowning is the third commonest cause of accidental death of children in the UK and many children drown in domestic swimming pools. Concern has been raised about the design and safety of the covers used on domestic swimming pools since the majority of drowning and near-drowning incidents occur in pools with covers on. Swimming pool covers are a diverse range of products and fulfil a number of functions. This diversity in their design and the associated hazards necessitated a multidisciplinary approach to their evaluation. A study of the epidemiology of drownings was carried out in order to specify the risks of swimming pool covers, together with a study of the market and a survey of pool owners and their attitudes to safety. The risks of swimming pool covers were then evaluated by engineering, materials and ergonomics testing which included simulation of both the user and the products. This study is an example of the need for a mix of test methods and types of simulations in order to provide an o...

Children's lives or garden aesthetics? A case study in public health advocacy

Following a decade of accumulating clinical reports on child drowning in domestic swimming pools, paediatricians began advocating legislation that would require all pools to be 'isolation' fenced. In 1990, the New South Wales Government introduced and then repeated such legislation following intense lobbying and media advocacy from a group of pool owners. This paper reviews the ways in which isolation fence advocates and opponents framed their public arguments. Five main areas of competing public discourse are identified: why pool drownings occur; the effects of fencing; expert views and community support; the role of the state in prevention; and personalised references to the value systems of those involved in the debate. Two factors seem likely to have contributed most to the overthrow of the legislation: fence opponents inhabiting the same noninterventionist ideological frame of reference as the government; and fence advocates' refusal to compromise on retrospective fencing seems likely to have inspired a commitment in opposition which would have been absent if an incrementalist, prospective fencing policy had been adopted.

Drowning and near drowning in children in the United Kingdom: lessons for prevention.

To determine the pattern of drowning and near drowning of children in Britain and identify means of prevention. Study of drowned and nearly drowned children under 15 years old. United Kingdom, 1988 and 1989. Children under 15 years either drowning or admitted to hospital after a submersion incident. Number of nearly drowned children, obtained from consultant paediatricians returning monthly notification cards through the British Paediatric Surveillance Unit. Number of drowned children notified by the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys and other national epidemiological offices; information from coroners. 306 children had confirmed submersion incidents: 149 died and 157 survived after near drowning. The annual incidence in England and Wales was 1.5/100,000, and mortality 0.7/100,000. Mortality was lowest in public pools 6% (2/32) and highest in rivers, canals, and lakes (78%, 56/73). Most of the children (263, 83%) were unsupervised at the time of the accident. 208 (68%) children were under 5 years old. Drowning and near drowning of children are problems in the British Isles. Appropriate supervision and safety barriers seem important for preventing such accidents. Improving information on dangers of drowning given to parents through the child surveillance programmes, encouraging fencing or draining of garden ponds and domestic swimming pools, and increasing supervision of swimming in lakes, rivers, and beaches should reduce the number of accidents.

Childhood drowning and near‐drowning in Brisbane: the contribution of domestic pools

To describe the epidemiology of domestic swimming pool drowning and near-drowning in Brisbane and to examine the efficacy of a broad range of preventive options, including pool fences. A prospective, hospital-based, injury surveillance system to describe the epidemiology of drowning and near-drowning and a community survey to describe pool fencing. The surveillance questionnaire was completed at presentation in the Emergency Department by the parent, nurse and doctor. Personal interviews in households that were randomly selected by means of a stratified sampling scheme provided the pool fencing description. All 139 children suffering from an immersion injury resulting in presentation at a hospital in the catchment area of The Mater Children's Hospital were included. There were 204 households with a swimming pool in the 1024 households interviewed in the community survey. The 100 domestic pool drownings and near-drownings were equivalent to 15.5 incidents per year per 100,000 children aged 0-13 years and 64.9 per year per 100,000 for the critical 1-3 years age group. Of 72 children who gained unintended access to a domestic pool, 88.9% were less than 3 years of age and 52.8% were less than 2 years. All 10 of the children who drowned and five who were severely brain damaged (age range, 12-32 months) were in this group. The risk of a drowning or near-drowning involving unintended access to an unfenced pool is 3.76 times higher than the risk associated with a fenced pool (95% confidence limits for relative risk: 2.14, 6.62). Pool fences are an effective method of preventing child drownings and near-drownings. This effectiveness can be further improved if compliance with gate closure can be enhanced. This should be emphasised in health promotion accompanying the introduction of universal pool fencing.

Thirty-six consecutive under 5 year old domestic swimming pool drownings.

Data were collected by the local nurse on each of the 36 drownings in domestic swimming pools of under 5 year olds that occurred between 1 September 1982 and 31 December 1986. The likely effect of New Zealand's 1987, Fencing of Swimming Pools Act in preventing these drowings, had it been in effect, is considered. It is concluded that at least 29 (80%) of the 36 drownings would have been prevented. Examination of the circumstances of the drownings leads to the conclusion that certain alternatives to the fencing law that have been proposed, such as teaching water skills to infants, fencing property boundaries, and use of pool covers, are unlikely to have been as effective.

Child accident-mortality in the Northern Territory, 1978-1985.

The mortality in children who were aged 0-14 years in the Northern Territory in 1983-1985 was 2.5-times higher than it was for Australia generally over the same period. Total accidental-death rates over the period 1979-1983 in Aboriginal children were 2.2-times higher than in non-Aboriginal children. A trend towards an excess in Aboriginal child mortality was present in most categories except drowning and was particularly noteworthy for deaths due to natural and environmental causes (predominantly caused by box-jellyfish stings). Non-Aboriginal children experienced higher rates of death due to drowning than they did elsewhere in Australia; most of these occurred in domestic swimming-pools. A higher mortality was encountered in rural areas. The pattern of motor-vehicle-related deaths differed between Aboriginal children and non-Aboriginal children, with the former experiencing a greater number of deaths due to non-collision accidents that involved "loss of control". The implications of these findings for the development of appropriate preventive strategies is discussed.

Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis: fifteen years later.

Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis is a fulminant and rapidly fatal diseases which principally affects children and young adults. The causative organism is Naegleria fowleri, an amoebo-flagellate found in most soil and freshwater habitats. The portal of entry is the nasopharynx from which the amoeba makes its way into the brain by penetration of the olfactory mucosa and cribriform plate. Diagnosis should be suspected in all cases of purulent meningitis and meningoencephalitis in which bacteria are not evident in the cerebrospinal fluid. Diagnosis can be made by microscopic examination of a fresh specimen of cerebrospinal fluid, or a specimen strained with Wright's or Gram's stain. Combination chemotherapy with amphotericin B and tetracycline, or amphotericin B and rifamycin, by intravenous, intrathecal, and when possible, intraventricular instillation, may offer some hope of success. Preventive measures include constant surveillance of domestic water supplies and swimming pools for amoebic contamination, and education of the public to avoid swimming in contaminated areas.