Domesticated Honey Bees Research Articles

Bee-Rustling on the Range: Trap-Nesting for Pollinators on Public Lands

A significant portion of world food supply depends on the action of pollinators, which for most crops are primarily domesticated and “wild” bees. Over 75% of pollinator value in the USA accrues through the actions of domesticated honey bees. However, the number of commercial honey bee colonies in the USA has been declining for seven decades due to parasitic arthropods, diseases, and various stresses. The recognition that honey bees, and the crops they service, are vulnerable has accelerated the search for alternative species of bees for pollination of selected crops. Foremost among potential alternatives are native solitary species such as Osmia lignaria propinqua, the “Blue Orchard Bee” (BOB), whose use as a pollinator of almonds, cherries, and apples is increasing. The BOB occurs on public lands managed by the USDA Forest Service, and the USDI Bureau of Land Management and National Park Service. BOBs are targets of “trappers” who place mostly unauthorized “trap-nests” of various designs on public lands. Several problems result from this “Tragedy of the Commons” situation: (1) the unsupervised removal of target bee species from their role in maintaining healthy ecosystems as pollinators of native plants; (2) the removal, as bycatch, of many nontarget species of bees and wasps that also employ trap-nests to rear their progeny; and (3) the shipping of these bees into areas where they do not occur naturally. We argue that unauthorized trap-nesting on public lands should be prohibited and offer several proposals to legalize commercial trap-nesting at a reduced level.

ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Dicistroviridae

Dicistroviridae is a family of small non-enveloped viruses with monopartite, linear, positive-sense RNA genomes of approximately 8–10 kb. Viruses of all classified species infect arthropod hosts, with some having devastating economic consequences, such as acute bee paralysis virus in domesticated honeybees and taura syndrome virus in shrimp farming. Conversely, the host specificity and other desirable traits exhibited by several members of this group make them potential natural enemies for intentional use against arthropod pests, such as triatoma virus against triatomine bugs that vector Chagas disease. This is a summary of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Report on the taxonomy of the Dicistroviridae which is available at www.ictv.global/report/dicistroviridae.

Daily and Seasonal Extranidal Behaviour Variations in the Invasive Yellow-Legged Hornet, Vespa velutina Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)

In eusocial insect species, the nest represents the fundamental element of the colony. Extranidal activities (foraging, nest maintenance, defence) are fundamental for the development and the survival of the colony. Therefore, they may represent interesting targets to disrupt to limit their expansion in case of pest species such as Vespa velutina, an alien predator of domestic honeybees in Europe. An accurate knowledge of the pattern of activity of this pest’s colonies is therefore required. Due to the highly defensive nature of this hornet, a video monitoring was realized on two colonies during their growth from August to November. Three major behaviours were monitored: nest maintenance, patrolling on the nest and foraging flights. Although of different size and monitored during different years, the two colonies exhibited similar patterns of daily and seasonal variation. This work is a first step in the study of this pest especially in view of control program.

Attractive Effect using Honeybee Extraction against Vespa velutina nigrithorax Buysson (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) Queen

꿀벌을 주먹이원으로 하는 특성으로 양봉농가에 피해를 주는 등검은말벌의 방제를 위해 꿀벌유인액을 이용하여 등검은말벌 여왕벌의 유인효과를 조사하였다. 양봉장 내·외부에 4종의 유인액(벌집추출액+막걸리+당액(5:3:2), 벌집추출액+막걸리+당액+화분(4:3:2:1), 꿀벌추출액+막걸리+당액(5:3:2), 꿀벌추출액+막걸리+당액+화분(4:3:2:1))을 적용한 트랩을 설치하고 등검은말벌 여왕벌의 유인효과를 조사한 결과, 꿀벌추출액과 막걸리, 당액으로 조성된 유인액에 포획된 개체수는 평균 10.4마리로 가장 많은 개체가 유인되어 등검은말벌의 여왕벌 포획에 효과가 있음을 확인 할 수 있었다.

The canary in the coalmine; bee declines as an indicator of environmental health.

Bee declines have received much attention of late, but there is considerable debate and confusion as to the extent, significance and causes of declines. In part, this reflects conflation of data for domestic honeybees, numbers of which are largely driven by economic factors, with those for wild bees, many of which have undergone marked range contractions but for the majority of which we have no good data on population size. There is no doubt that bees are subject to numerous pressures in the modern world. The abundance and diversity of flowers has declined along with availability of suitable nest sites, bees are chronically exposed to cocktails of agrochemicals, and they are simultaneously exposed to novel parasites and pathogens accidentally spread by humans. Climate change is likely to exacerbate these problems in the future, particularly for cool- climate specialists such as bumblebees. Stressors do not act in isolation; for example pesticide exposure can impair both detoxification mechanisms and immune responses, rendering bees more susceptible to parasites. It seems certain that chronic exposure to multiple, interacting stressors is driving honeybee colony losses and declines of wild pollinators. Bees have a high profile and so their travails attract attention, but these same stressors undoubtedly bear upon other wild organisms, many of which are not monitored and have few champions. Those wild insects for which we do have population data (notably butterflies and moths) are overwhelmingly also in decline. We argue that bee declines are indicators of pervasive and ongoing environmental damage that is likely to impact broadly on biodiversity and the ecosystem services it provides.

Vespa velutina nest distribution at a local scale: An 8-year survey of the invasive honeybee predator.

Vespa velutina is an invasive species that was observed for the first time in France and Europe in 2004, which rapidly threatened domestic honeybees with active predation. For the first time in this study, we analyzed the distribution of V. velutina nests at a local scale to understand the pattern of nesting, and in 8 years of monitoring, a total of 528 nests were surveyed. With the exception of 2 years, the nests of V. velutina were randomly distributed within the monitored area, which suggested that intraspecific competition for nesting sites and/or food was unlikely. When the data for all years were combined, an aggregated distribution of nests at the seafront in the vicinity of the oyster farm and sportfishing activities was observed. This distribution suggested that seafood, attractive to vespids, might provide a valuable alternative food source that favored colony development. We also tested the effect of spring queen trapping of V. velutina on the distribution of nests in 2014, which was the year with the greatest number of colonies within the area; the position of the traps did not influence the distribution of the nests. For the first time, this study showed that (i) intraspecific competition was unlikely to be a mechanism for population regulation, (ii) some areas were more likely favored for hornet nests, and (iii) spring queen wasp trapping was inefficient as a method to limit the distribution of the V. velutina population.

Varroa mites, viruses and bacteria incidences in Kenyan domesticated honeybee colonies

ABSTRACTVarroa mite (Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman) is a major global threat to the western honey bee (Apis mellifera L.). The ectoparasite has been implicated in the spread of honeybee viruses. Beekeeping plays a major role in transmission of the mite. The study aimed at assessing levels of Varroa infestation, bee viruses and bacteria incidences in domesticated honeybee colonies. Samples of adult honey bees, bee brood and Varroa mites were collected from Baringo, Narok, Kwale, Magarini, Voi, Ijara, Busia and Siaya in Kenya. Ten hives in each site were inspected for the presence of Varroa mites on adult bees using the icing sugar technique and forceps in sealed brood cells. The number of mites observed were recorded per site. Ribonucleic acid was extracted from the mites, brood and adult bees and a polymerase chain reaction was performed to detect the black queen cell virus. Pooled RNA samples of brood and adult bees were used in next generation sequencing on a 454 GS FLX platform to detect bee v...

Establishing Wildflower Pollinator Habitats in Agricultural Farmland to Provide Multiple Ecosystem Services.

Beneficial insects provide critical ecosystem services and in agriculture their contribution in pollination and pest control is widely evident (Losey and Vaughan, 2006; Kremen and Chaplin-Kramer, 2007). Globally, 35% of food production benefits from pollinator services (Klein et al., 2007). In many systems, pollination has been provided by the domesticated honey bee (primarily Apis mellifera), but the reliability of pollination services by wild pollinators is becoming increasingly valued (Garibaldi et al., 2013, 2014). These wild pollinators, the majority of which are bee species, persist independently in the ecosystem by relying on multiple resources to complete their lifecycles (Bohart, 1972). Similarly, natural enemies, such as insect predators and parasitoids, provide vital pest control and also persist independently in the farmscape. Although these beneficial insects are not directly managed for their ecosystem services, the farm landscape surrounding targeted crop fields can be modified to increase their abundance and diversity resulting in increased ecosystem services to support a sustainable agricultural system (Landis et al., 2000; Hannon and Sisk, 2009; Holzschuh et al., 2012). Managing farmscapes for these wild beneficial insects is especially critical as insects are threatened by human-mediated landscape disturbances (Tscharntke et al., 2005). With wild bee populations in decline (Potts et al., 2010), there is increasing interest in managing for wild bees by incorporating pollinator habitat into farmland. The concept of setting aside land specifically for wildlife within a farmscape is not new (Baudry et al., 2000), however, the addition of wildflower plantings or saving natural wildflower areas is a specific strategy that can be adopted for its multi-functionality in supporting both pollinators and natural enemies. It is especially valuable in that it can be modified and designed to fit specific cropping systems, landscapes, and support the lifecycles of a community of unmanaged beneficial insects. Here we consider how these variables have been examined in recent pollinator habitat studies, and discuss additional considerations to optimize wildflower plantings to benefit multiple ecosystem services.

Differential Action of Pyrethroids on Honey Bee and Bumble Bee Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels

The primary mode of action of pyrethroids in insects is to interfere with the normal function of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSC). We have shown that deactivation kinetics were more deeply affected in VGSC from the sensory neurons of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, than from its brain neurons (Kadala et al 2011 Neurotoxicology, 2014 PLoS one) and suggested from studies using the cloned AmNaV1 sodium channel, that NaV accessory subunits could partly underlie this differential sensitivity (Gosselin-Badaroudine et al 2015, Sci Rep). On the other hand, the side effects of neonicotinoids towards non-target organisms (including pollinators), has recently focused the attention and led the European Union to restrict the use of three members of this compounds family.This restriction may mechanically lead to an increase in pyrethroids usage (e.g. deltamethrin, cypermethrin, λ-cyalothrin, permethrin). Whereas our past work was focused on domestic honey bee VGSC susceptibility, the impact of pyrethroids on wild bee channels remained largely unknown. Here, the effect of veratridine and two pyrethroids are compared on neuronal VGSCs from the honey bee and Bombus terrestris, a common bumble bee. Modeling the sodium channel as a multi-state channel with fast and slow inactivation mechanisms allows a more precise analysis of gating kinetics modifications induced by pyrethroids. Together with molecular modeling, these results give some clues to understand how such compounds could selectively target different species.

Laboratory rearing of solitary bees and wasps.

Ecological experiments often require standardized methods that exclude natural variation and allow manipulation of a single parameter. It has been shown that domesticated honey bee larvae are raisable in a controlled environment. Here we demonstrate that this approach is also transferable to wild solitary bees and wasps without inducing negative effects on their development. Wells may also be supplemented with the antibiotic substance oxytetracycline to control the presence of bacteria. The method thus provides a useful tool to investigate offspring recruitment and larval development in solitary bees and wasps, plus their responses to manipulation of factors as for example diets, toxins and microbiota.

Fruit set in perennial vetch (Vicia unijuga): reproductive system and insect role in pollination

AbstractPerennial vetch (Vicia unijuga) is a wild plant found in parts of East Asia and potentially valuable as a forage species for more extreme environments. Information on its reproductive system and pollination biology is needed for progress in domestication of the species. We characterized the reproductive system of perennial vetch as facultative xenogamy (i.e. it is largely cross‐pollinated by insects but is also self‐compatible and can self‐pollinate). There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the fruit set ratio between insect cross‐pollination and artificial cross‐pollination at the seed maturation stage, but natural self‐pollination was inefficient. In our study conducted on the Tibetan plateau, eight insect species (especially certain bumble bees) are identified as potential pollinators, and four other insect species belonging to the Lepidoptera and Diptera visited flowers but are unlikely to be pollinators. The flower visitation rate of wild bumble bees was 1.6–3.3 times higher than domestic honeybees, with Bombus lepidus having the highest visitation rate of 15.7 florets/min. The diurnal floret opening rhythm of perennial vetch was synchronized with diurnal activity of potential pollinators. Optimal pollination of perennial vetch would likely be achieved using wild bees, as they have behaviour characteristics and flower tripping ability necessary, and are present in sufficient numbers to be efficient pollinators of this crop. However, even with sufficiency of pollination, there remains a fundamental problem with low fruit set which requires further investigation from a plant biology perspective.

Olfactory attraction of the hornet Vespa velutina to honeybee colony odors and pheromones.

Since the beginning of the last century, the number of biological invasions has continuously increased worldwide. Due to their environmental and economical consequences, invasive species are now a major concern. Social wasps are particularly efficient invaders because of their distinctive biology and behavior. Among them, the yellow-legged hornet, Vespa velutina, is a keen hunter of domestic honeybees. Its recent introduction to Europe may induce important beekeeping, pollination, and biodiversity problems. Hornets use olfactory cues for the long-range detection of food sources, in this case the location of honeybee colonies, but the exact nature of these cues remains unknown. Here, we studied the orientation behavior of V. velutina workers towards a range of hive products and protein sources, as well as towards prominent chemical substances emitted by these food sources. In a multiple choice test performed under controlled laboratory conditions, we found that hornets are strongly attracted to the odor of some hive products, especially pollen and honey. When testing specific compounds, the honeybee aggregation pheromone, geraniol, proved highly attractive. Pheromones produced by honeybee larvae or by the queen were also of interest to hornet workers, albeit to a lesser extent. Our results indicate that V. velutina workers are selectively attracted towards olfactory cues from hives (stored food, brood, and queen), which may signal a high prey density. This study opens new perspectives for understanding hornets’ hunting behavior and paves the way for developing efficient trapping strategies against this invasive species.

Cover Caption

Vespa velutina is the first Vespidae predator of honeybees to be accidentally introduced into Europe from Asia. This invasive hornet species typically hunts domestic honeybees by hovering at the hive entrance. Our capture‐markrecapture study shows that within the apiary, the distribution of V. velutina is heterogeneous. This is not related to the honeybee colony size but could reflect the variability in defensiveness between colonies (see pages 765–774). Photoed by Karine Monceau.

Pollination services are mediated by bee functional diversity and landscape context

Wild bees, which exhibit multiple functional traits enabling pollination of apples (Malus domestica Borkh), can potentially compensate for recent declines in domesticated honey bees (Apis mellifera Linnaeus) that are conventionally employed to ensure apple fruit and seed set. Whether compensation is possible will depend on functional diversity in the wild bee community and on the distribution of habitat and resources within the landscape surrounding an orchard that affect wild bee abundance. We studied pollination services and bee functional diversity in 20 apple orchards in southern Quebec, Canada. We evaluated pollinator efficacy by studying: apple visitation rates, approach (front or side-working), body size, foraging type (pollen or nectar foraging), sociality, temporal and climatic activity patterns, and pollen carrying habit. Pollination services were measured as apple fruit set and seed set. A distance-based measure of functional diversity, calibrated with bee traits and weighted by species relative abundance in the wild bee community, was used to model pollination services. We correlated the landscape composition and configuration of surrounding natural (forest) and semi-natural (meadow) habitats with bee diversity and pollination services. The incidence of fruit set and seed set in orchards increased with bee functional diversity. Complementarity between managed versus unmanaged bees in traits associated with foraging and resource use drove this relationship. Seed set was also negatively correlated with both the mean distance from surrounding meadows and the total area of surrounding orchards. Bee functional diversity was positively associated with surrounding meadow and forest area. These two land classes complement each other in their seasonal provision of foraging resources for bees. Our models can be used to prescribe management and conservation objectives for bee habitat management that promote pollination services. We identify useful wild bee pollinators and discuss their needs in terms of landscape composition and configuration.

Domesticated honey bees evolutionarily reduce flower nectar volume in a Tibetan lotus

Plants have evolved costly flowering traits, including the provisioning of rich nectar, to attract and reward their pollinators. Beekeeping (apiculture) locally increases densities of honey bees, which might drive economization of pollinator‐attracting traits, but the potential evolutionary consequences of beekeeping on plant–pollinator interactions remain unknown. Here, we present evidence suggesting that intensive apiculture has driven the rapid evolution of plant traits in the alpine lotus (Saussurea nigrescens) on the Tibetan Plateau by allowing reduced nectar volume provisioning without compromising pollination success. This conclusion is supported by measurements of reproductive and vegetative traits, including nectar, at sites of varying distance from apiaries that have housed introduced honey bees (Apis mellifera) since the early 1980s. Nectar volume was more than 60% lower at sites close to apiaries than at more distant sites, while nectar concentration remained consistent. When seedlings from field sites were grown under common garden conditions, trends in nectar volume identical to those in the field were observed, indicating that recently evolved genetic differences likely underlie patterns observed in the field. The adaptive advantage of reduced nectar volume under high pollinator density was clear in both the field and in the common garden. Specifically, plants from sites close to apiaries were taller, had more aboveground biomass, and produced more flowers and seeds compared to those at distant sites, which is consistent with the tradeoffs between nectar volume per flower and flower number per inflorescence within sites. The evolution of reduced nectar volume suggested by our results shows that the widespread practice of beekeeping might be a strong selective agent acting on wild plant populations and illustrates that human activities may indirectly affect evolution by changing critical species interactions.

A scientific note about a parasitoid that can parasitize the yellow-legged hornet, Vespa velutina nigrithorax, in Europe

The yellow-legged hornet, Vespa velutina nigrithorax, was accidentally introduced from China to southwestern France in 2004 (Haxaire et al. 2006). The species is currently colonizing France and neighboring countries (Spain, Portugal, Belgium, and Italy) (Darrouzet and Gevar 2012; Monceau et al. 2013). V. velutina is a pest in France because it preys upon domestic honeybees, Apis mellifera. Beekeeping operations are directly affected by this predation, with some beekeepers reporting colony losses (Darrouzet and Gevar 2012; Monceau et al. 2013).While many factors may play a role in the successful establishment of an invasive species, research has focused on the effects of parasites (Prenter et al. 2004). It has previously been suggested that invasive species are subject to less pressure from parasites than are sympatric native species because invasive species leave their parasites behind when they invade new habitats (enemy release hypothesis). They can thus allocate more resources to gr ...

Identification of developmentally-specific kinotypes and mechanisms of Varroa mite resistance through whole-organism, kinome analysis of honeybee.

Recent investigations associate Varroa destructor (Mesostigmata: Varroidae) parasitism and its associated pathogens and agricultural pesticides with negative effects on colony health, resulting in sporadic global declines in domestic honeybee (Apis mellifera) populations. These events have motivated efforts to develop research tools that can offer insight into the causes of declining bee health as well as identify biomarkers to guide breeding programs. Here we report the development of a bee-specific peptide array for characterizing global cellular kinase activity in whole bee extracts. The arrays reveal distinct, developmentally-specific signaling profiles between bees with differential susceptibility to infestation by Varroa mites. Gene ontology analysis of the differentially phosphorylated peptides indicates that the differential susceptibility to Varroa mite infestation does not reflect compromised immunity; rather, there is evidence for mite-mediated immune suppression within the susceptible phenotype that may reduce the ability of these bees to counter secondary viral infections. This hypothesis is supported by the demonstration of more diverse viral infections in mite-infested, susceptible adult bees. The bee-specific peptide arrays are an effective tool for understanding the molecular basis of this complex phenotype as well as for the discovery and utilization of phosphorylation biomarkers for breeding programs.

Spatial distribution of Vespa velutina individuals hunting at domestic honeybee hives: heterogeneity at a local scale

Since its recent introduction into Europe, the yellow-legged hornet, Vespa velutina, has become a major predator of the domestic honeybee, Apis mellifera, but little is known about its hunting behavior. We studied V. velutina hunting behavior by a capture-mark-recapture procedure in an experimental apiary. A total of 360 hornets were captured and tagged, and we determined: (i) the number of hornets visiting the apiary and the changes in time, (ii) the average number of individual visits per half-day and the time elapsed between consecutive recaptures, and (iii) the individual and global distribution of the hornets in the apiary. More than 50% of the marked hornets were recaptured at least once, this increased to 74% in considering the first marked individuals. We estimated 350 hornets visiting the patch daily with at least 1 visit per half-day. The number of marked hornets decreased over time while the number of unmarked ones increased, suggesting a turnover of individuals. The reduction of the delay between consecutive visits indicates that hornets became more efficient over time. Most of the hornets (88%) were recaptured in front of different hives but, overall, the global distribution was aggregative. Hornets were mainly recaptured in front of 1 hive which was neither the smallest nor the biggest colony, suggesting that the major cue used by hornets is not the amount of food. We hypothesize that the defensive behavior of the honeybee colony could explain our results which may be promising to further studies.

Application of Asiatic Honey Bees (Apis cerana) and Stingless Bees (Trigona laeviceps) as Pollinator Agents of Hot Pepper (Capsicum annuumL.) at Local Indonesia Farm System

In Indonesia, hot pepper (Capsicum annuum) is one of the most important spices. Despite the fact that high yield cultivars and fertilizers have been applied to increase the annual production of this spice, local farming is always unable to maintain constant production. Studies to find the explanation of this problem mostly focused on pest attack while possibility of low fruit production due to lack of pollination was neglected. In this study, the effect of pollinator visitation to fruit set and quality was assessed by application of two local domesticated honey bees, Asiatic honey bees (Apis cerana) and stingless bees (Trigona laeviceps) as potential pollinator agents at hot pepper plantation. This study found that both bees had similar visitation rate whileA. ceranaspend less time in flowers. Visitation byA. ceranaandTrigona laevicepsimproved fruit set, fruit production per plant, average fruit weight, and fruit size. This result confirms the importance of cross pollination for hot pepper production and both species could be used as pollination agent for hot pepper. Advantages and disadvantages for each species as pollination agent for local Indonesia farm system are discussed in this paper.

Predation pressure dynamics study of the recently introduced honeybee killer Vespa velutina: learning from the enemy

Following the recent introduction of Vespa velutina into France, an increase in predation on domestic honeybees, Apis mellifera, has resulted from the dispersion of this hornet across the country. We aimed at providing its predation pressure dynamics at bee hives in two sites by using food traps that could be used as a comparison in future years. The number of trapped and chasing hornets in each apiary was correlated. Predation lasted 5 months on our two sites; 916 and 1,894 hornets were trapped on each site, respectively. Predation at bee hives was found to be affected by wind speed and by the seasonal effect of temperature and humidity. We also show that V. velutina queens and males were present during unusual periods in our traps, which may be significant to understanding their life cycle. These results are discussed with reference to the biology of other Vespine species. This study represents the first monitoring of V. velutina predation pressure dynamics in France. It constitutes an initial database for pest management and suggests ways of protecting bee hives.