Domestic Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

The Economisation of Climate Change: An Assessment of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme

The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) is demonstrative of a trend towards the use of market based mechanisms by states attempting to reduce their domestic greenhouse gas emissions. The adoption of this measure in favour of a carbon tax is arguably rooted in the neoliberal ideology of the economic and political systems of the EU. The use, and efficacy of the ETS, serves to highlight the asymmetry between economic and environmental considerations when addressing climate change mitigation, which often results in the prioritisation of economic benefits above environmental degradation. Yet, centrally, the limited effect in terms of greenhouse gas reductions that these types of measures have so far demonstrated is not because they are a product of neoliberal economic and political ideology, but instead, the political reluctance to reform the ETS to the extent necessary for it to contribute meaningfully to the EU’s climate change mitigation commitments. Nonetheless, the use of economic measures within the field of climate governance is arguably one useful means, within a plethora of other public and private mechanisms, of addressing EU greenhouse gas emissions.

Do Kenya’s climate change mitigation ambitions necessitate large-scale renewable energy deployment and dedicated low-carbon energy policy?

In this paper Kenya’s climate change mitigation ambitions are analysed from an energy system perspective, with a focus on the role of renewable and other low-carbon energy technologies. At COP-21 in 2015 in Paris, Kenya has committed to a ‘nationally determined contribution’ of reducing domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 30% in 2030 in comparison to a business-as-usual projection. An efficient exploitation of the country’s renewable energy resources is key to achieving this target. We use the TIAM-ECN model to characterize plausible development pathways for the Kenyan energy mix until 2050 under different climate change mitigation scenarios. We conclude that the power sector can expand with mostly renewable energy options even in the absence of stringent greenhouse gas abatement targets. On the contrary, on the demand side a substantial deployment of low-carbon technologies is triggered only when ambitious emission reduction objectives are in place. The introduction of these technologies entails additional energy system costs, ranging in 2050 from 0.5% to 2% of the country’s GDP. Our analysis supports the feasibility of Kenyan climate management goals, provided that adequate investments in renewable and other low-carbon energy technologies are timely made available.

Cobenefits of global and domestic greenhouse gas emissions for air quality and human health

BackgroundReductions in greenhouse gas emissions often reduce emissions of coemitted air pollutants, yielding cobenefits for air quality and human health. Here, we report results of a global cobenefits study—the first to use a global atmospheric model and consistent future scenarios—and results from follow-on studies that downscale those global results to focus on the continental US. MethodsWe use the RCP4.5 scenario as an aggressive global greenhouse gas mitigation scenario, and compare it with its associated reference case, the difference between these scenarios is uniquely attributable to the global carbon policy. FindingsIn the global study, we find that global greenhouse gas mitigation avoids roughly 0·5 million air pollution-related deaths per year in 2030, 1·3 million air pollution-related deaths per year in 2050, and 2·2 million air pollution-related deaths per year in 2100. Global average cobenefits are US$50–380 per ton of CO2 reduced, which exceeds previous estimates. These cobenefits also exceed the marginal abatement costs in 2030 and 2050. Cobenefits here are higher than in previous studies because we account for global air pollution transport, and because of projected population, and baseline mortality growth. We then downscale these results in 2050 to the continental USA to project these cobenefits at fine resolution, using the WRF, SMOKE and CMAQ models, and we separate the contributions of domestic and foreign reductions to US cobenefits. We find that for PM2.5, most of the air quality and health cobenefits are from domestic emissions. By contrast, for ozone, most of the cobenefits results from foreign emissions, including global methane reductions. InterpretationThese results suggest that the air quality and health cobenefits realised by one country will be much greater if foreign countries also reduce greenhouse gas emissions in a coordinated effort. We also conclude that previous studies that focus on domestic or local cobenefits might significantly underestimate the total cobenefits of global greenhouse gas reductions. FundingUS Environmental Protection Agency, the Integrated Assessment Research Program in the US Department of Energy, Office of Science, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, and an EPA STAR Graduate Fellowship.

Relationships between Tourism and Hospitality Sector Electricity Consumption in Spanish Provinces (1999–2013)

The EU is committed to a 40% reduction in their domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. In order to reach this ambitious target, new measures affecting all economic sectors would be needed. This paper focuses on the tourism sector. Using econometric panel data techniques, the relationships between tourist overnight stays and the hospitality sector electricity consumption is studied for the Spanish provinces during the period 1999–2013. With this aim, an Energy-Tourism Kuznets Curve hypothesis is tested. The results show that the Energy-Tourism Kuznets Curve hypothesis is not supported. An increasing positive relationship between the hospitality sector electricity consumption and overnight stays is observed. Results also show that the hospitality sector electricity consumption elasticity values, with respect to tourist overnight stays, differ among the provinces, the values being within a range of 0.1–0.5 during the period. The highest values are observed for the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, Gerona, Tarragona and Malaga. Energy efficiency measures, the adoption of renewable energy systems and the development of energy management capabilities are recommended.

Industrial carbon footprint of several typical Chinese textile fabrics

Carbon Footprint (CFP) can clearly reflect the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the whole-life cycle of certain human activities. The assessment of CFP is an important tool and a basis for managing and controlling greenhouse gas emissions. At the product level, the CFP and carbon label could contribute to the low-carbon consumption mode by providing more carbon information for consumers, thus playing an important role in impelling society towards a low-carbon mode. China is the largest textile and garment producer and consumer, in the world. Studies on the CFP of textiles are important in the management of domestic greenhouse gas emissions, and in communicating carbon information and carrying out relevant negotiations in international trade. This study selected two types of typical Chinese textiles: wool fabrics and cotton fabrics. Wool fabrics include pure wool fabric and blended wool–polyester fabric; cotton fabrics include 11 kinds of fabrics: yarn-dyed fabric in pure cotton and polyester cotton, bleached fabric made by a plain weave process and a rib process, dyed fabric in pure cotton and polyester–cotton in dark, medium, and light colors, and gray fabric. The production procedures and relevant production data for typical enterprises were meticulously investigated and collected. The system boundaries, relevant methods, and assessment models of each textile industrial CFP were established. Subsequently, based on the calculation of China's CFP coefficients of energy and materials, the study assessed the CFPs of these textile fabric products. A comparative analysis of the results of different types of fabric show the industrial CFP of wool fabrics is almost three times that of cotton fabrics. The industrial CFPs per unit product in descending order are: pure wool fabrics, blended wool-polyester fabrics, and cotton fabrics; the average industrial carbon footprint of each being 14.07kgCO2e/kg, 13.55kgCO2e/kg, and 5.34kgCO2e/kg, respectively. The critical factors influencing the industrial CFP of cotton fabrics are the types of fabric used and the corresponding production processes. The industrial CFP of yarn-dyed fabric is higher than that of dyed fabric, by 70.8%, on average, and the industrial carbon footprint of fabric made by the plain weave process is higher than fabric made by the rib process, by 76.2%. In addition, different raw materials, textile technologies, and dye colors used resulted in CFP differences. Indirect industrial CFP, the major source of which is consumption of electricity, contributes about 87% of the total industrial CFP, while direct industrial carbon footprint only contributes about 13%. The consumption of energy, for instance electricity, steam, and coal, is the main source of industrial CFP. The study results imply that the key approaches for reducing the CFP of textiles are to enhance energy management, especially in the use of electricity, and to improve the output efficiency of production. As regards the consumers, choosing light colored cotton textiles leads to less CFP and climate change impacts.

An eu Law Perspective on the Paris Agreement: Will the eu Consider Strengthening its Mitigation Effort?

The European Union is the only party to the unfccc that is a regional organization. The European Union’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution, submitted on behalf of itself and its member states, contains a pledge to reduce domestic greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40 per cent by 2030 compared with 1990 levels, in pursuit of the general objective to keep the global average temperature increase below 2°C. Given, however, that the Paris Agreement aims not only to hold the increase ‘well below’ 2°C, but also to ‘pursue efforts’ to limit the increase to 1.5°C, one wonders whether the outcome of cop 21 may lead the European Union to a reconsideration—with possibly a strengthening—of the mitigation effort proposed in its indc.

Remodeling Techniques for Reducing Greenhouse Gases Emissions in Existing Buildings

There are only 10 projects of the domestic greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions trading scheme in building sector (i.e., 1.5% of 652 registered projects) because the certified methodologies to reduce GHG emissions can not be applied to building sector. This study presents remodeling techniques to reduce GHG emissions in existing buildings. First of all, preconditions and related regulations were reviewed. And then, a pool of factors for GHG reduction are selected and evaluated with respect to factors for reducing energy consumption. This study also investigates the criteria and the decision making process for remodeling techniques to reduce GHG emissions. Finally, the remodeling techniques using the decision making process were grouped based on redundancy of each effect. If reducing methodologies for GHG offset program can be developed using the analyzed remodeling techniques in this study, registered projects in building sector would be increase.

The EU 40 % greenhouse gas emission reduction target by 2030 in perspective

We assess the fairness and ambition level of the EU’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) of reducing domestic greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40 % relative to 1990. For this, we calculate which reduction targets for other major emitting economies are comparable to the EU target, given widely diverging effort-sharing approaches. We introduce a novel approach in which the EU target is taken as starting point for allocating emission reductions to other regions. Under this approach, the global emission level is an outcome of the analysis, contrary to standard effort-sharing approaches in which the global climate goal is specified. We find that the INDC of the EU, if other regions take on comparable targets based on a differentiated convergence per-capita approach, could be sufficient for a global 2 °C pathway. However, if emissions are allocated according to a historical responsibility approach, the global emission level in 2030 is much higher than the level of 2 °C pathways. Furthermore, we conclude that India, Mexico, and Brazil have more ambitious INDCs than the EU according to both a differentiated convergence per-capita approach and a historical responsibility approach.

An EU Law Perspective on the Paris Agreement: Will the EU Consider Strengthening Its Mitigation Effort?

The European Union is the only party to the UNFCCC that is a regional organization. The European Union’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution, submitted on behalf of itself and its member states, contains a pledge to reduce domestic greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40 per cent by 2030 compared with 1990 levels, in pursuit of the general objective to keep the global average temperature increase below 2°C. Given, however, that the Paris Agreement aims not only to hold the increase ‘well below’ 2°C, but also to ‘pursue efforts’ to limit the increase to 1.5°C, one wonders whether the outcome of COP 21 may lead the European Union to a reconsideration—with possibly a strengthening—of the mitigation effort proposed in its INDC.

Approach Channel Modelling with Advanced Hydroinformatic Tool, Case Study: Small Hydro Power Plant Huta Certeze, Romania

The promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources (eRES) is an imperative of the current period for: environmental reasons, increasing energy independence to the diversification of energy imports and for reasons of economic and social cohesion. Romania was among the first candidate witch transposed in their legislation the Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and the Council on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable sources (by GD 443/2003) and set an indicative target for 2020, representing 33% eRES share of gross domestic electricity consumption. The European Commission presented its view on an integrated policy framework for climate and energy polices until 2030 in January 2014 suggesting, among others, the reduction of EU domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 40% below the 1990 level by 2030 as well as a moderate increase of the share of renewable energy to at least 27% of the EU's energy consumption by 2030. EREC, among others on behalf of ESHA, called on the Commission and heads of governments for more ambitious goals for all forms of renewable energy. Intention to invest in small hydropower is considered by many private companies, and for this option an old small hydropower plant can be. The main expenses for placement of small hydro are those related to the intake, penstock and the power plant building. There are conditions for such an investment expenses that depend on environmental compliance. Opportunity to purchase the SHP should be viewed in terms of return on investment compared to other business opportunity.

Carbon footprint of textile throughout its life cycle: a case study of Chinese cotton shirts

The carbon footprint (CFP) reflects the greenhouse gases (GHGs) generated throughout the life cycle of a human activity or product, and is therefore an important tool for assessing and managing GHG emissions. At the level of an individual product, a carbon-labeling scheme that provides more information for consumers could play an important role in encouraging a shift to low-carbon consumption. China is the largest textile and garment producer and consumer in the world. Studying the carbon footprint of textiles is therefore important domestically, for the management of domestic greenhouse gas emission and, internationally, for the communication of carbon information and relevant trade negotiations. For establishing the product carbon labeling system in China, this paper constructed an operable and comparable CFP assessment method and framework at product level and presents a complete case for pure cotton shirts made in China. Based on investigations of several Chinese textile companies and the observation of every production sub-process, the system boundary and methods of assessing textile product CFP were established. We then estimated Chinese CFP conversion factors for relevant energy sources and materials, and calculated the actual CFP for the life cycle of a pure cotton shirt. The average CFP of a pure cotton shirt produced in China, throughout its life cycle, is estimated as 8.771 kgCO2e. Of this, direct CFP is 0.347 kgCO2e, whereas indirect CFP is much higher, at 8.423 kgCO2e. The industrial production stage accounts for the highest proportion of the CFP, and overall production (including agricultural and industrial production) accounts for more than 90% of the total CFP. Approximately 96% of CFP throughout the product life cycle is indirect CFP, which is embedded in the use of energy and materials in each process. Within the industrial production stage, the transportation and weaving sub-processes account for nearly all the direct CFP (0.347 kgCO2e). Energy consumption, especially of electricity, is the main contributor to the CFP of textile products. These results could facilitate comparison between different products, and for the same products from different producers, In order to reduce the CFP throughout the entire textiles sector.

Implementing the Renewable Fuel Standard with the Renewable Portfolio Standard in the US: Implications for Policy Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) and state-level Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) have the potential to interact in complex ways because they will both rely on biomass for cellulosic biofuels and bio-electricity. This interaction could be synergistic or competitive; while the implementation of the RFS could divert biomass from electricity generation for biofuels it would also generate electricity as a co-product of the cellulosic biofuel production process. This paper examines the welfare costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions effects of the RFS and RPS implemented jointly and compares them with those of implementing each of these policies by itself over the 2007-2030 period using an integrated, dynamic, price endogenous model of the electricity, transportation and agricultural sectors for the US. We also compare the cost effectiveness of these policies implemented jointly with those of a carbon tax that achieves the same level of cumulative reduction in domestic GHG emissions over 2007-2030 period. We find that the implementation of the RFS will raise the welfare costs of implementing the RPS for the electricity sector by 10% and lower its GHG benefits by 7% relative to those with the RPS implemented by itself. We also find that the global welfare costs of the jointly implemented RFS and RPS policies are significantly higher than those of a carbon tax. However, the former induces a larger shift to renewable energy than the carbon tax alone and thus would achieve larger reductions in domestic GHG emissions in the long run than a constant carbon tax policy.

National development and carbon trading: the symbolism of Chinese climate capitalism

China has begun to embrace a “cap-and-trade” approach for mitigating domestic greenhouse gas emissions and proposed a national emission trading scheme. The neoliberal climate policy program received strong political support in China, despite challenging political and economic realities. The conditions upon which the new domestic carbon market is established stand at odds with the neoliberal argument that such markets serve the interests of a business-led coalition. The China discourse, in geopolitical terms, is built upon a desire to engage in the international carbon finance and embedded into the historical narratives of lost development opportunities. The authoritarian regime and the society as a whole are keen on exploring ways for altering the unequal power structure reproduced in the international carbon markets. Creating domestic demand and its own carbon market institutions is described as an attempt to gain economic control from international market actors. Developing a functioning carbon trading regime and strategically engaging in the regional and global carbon market is consistent with its desire for acquiring market power in the global economy. The political discourse portrays China in search of greater degree of independence and global access to shape carbon finance on its own terms.

A missing link? The case of Norway and Sweden: Does increased renewable energy production impact domestic greenhouse gas emissions?

This article examines how the EU׳s RES directive11The directive for the promotion of renewable energy sources; – the “RES directive”. will impact domestic greenhouse gas emissions in Norway and Sweden by 2020. The directive aims for a higher RES share in the energy consumption mix, and Norway and Sweden have established a common electricity certificate scheme to help achieve these RES goals. In terms of how these two national RES plans will impact domestic emissions by 2020, factors such as nuclear power, consumption changes and the energy balance must be considered. The most practical approach to evaluate the plans’ impact on emissions is to focus on changes in carbon-based consumption within the three directive sectors.The Norwegian RES action plan will not affect domestic emissions unless the electricity surplus generated by the certificate market is used to phase out fossil fuels in domestic sectors beyond the scope of the RES directive. The use of electricity to phase out fossil fuel consumption in the offshore sector would substantially reduce Norwegian emissions figures. The Swedish plan would positively impact Swedish greenhouse gas emissions; however, this impact is limited, primarily because a substantial increase in energy consumption is expected.

Retrofitting social housing in the UK: Home energy use and performance in a pre-Community Energy Saving Programme (CESP)

Improving household energy efficiency is regarded as key to significantly curtailing domestic greenhouse gas emissions. Various policy instruments have been introduced to retrofit the existing domestic building stock in the UK; however, many fail to acknowledge the significant role that occupants’ lifestyle play in energy use. The research discusses the results of a survey questionnaire administered to the residents of one of the pilot CESP schemes in Aspley, Nottingham. Factors affecting domestic energy consumption are explored, some of which relate to the building design, while others are under the direct control of the occupants. Significant findings related to home performance, home energy use, and tenants’ lifestyle are investigated in the first phase of the research. The total number of responses to the survey represents 10% of around 900 properties eligible for the CESP scheme that have not been approached for the scheme uptake. It is evident from the survey results that the majority of the sample is aware of the basic energy-saving actions in everyday life but are not likely to take up the more difficult actions. In summary, retrofit programmes will reduce carbon emissions to some degree, whereas the bigger challenge is addressing habitual household energy consumption.

European Agency Leader Urges Long‐Term Environmental Policy

A 23 October agreement by European Union (EU) leaders to reduce domestic greenhouse gas emissions is a good example of developing and implementing a needed long‐term, sustainable environmental policy agenda for Europe. So says Hans Bruyninckx, executive director of the European Environment Agency (EEA), an EU agency.

The future role of agriculture and land use change for climate change mitigation in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, 53 % of domestic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were generated in the agriculture and other land use sectors in 2005. However, no specified measures for climate change mitigation have thus far been designated nationally in these sectors. In this paper, we quantified future greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation potentials through 2025 by using the Agriculture Forestry and Other Land Use Bottom-up model to clarify cost-effective technological options under different mitigation cost scenarios. We found that (1) GHG emissions of 69.1 MtCO2eq (Million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) equilivalent)/year will be generated from the agriculture and land use sectors in 2025 in a baseline scenario, (2) a reduction of 32 MtCO2-eq/year (a 47 % reduction from baseline emissions) is possible at a cost of as much as US$10/tCO2-eq in 2025, (3) in agriculture, an emissions reduction of 10 MtCO2-eq/year could be achieved by implementing midseason drainage in rice cultivation, generating bioenergy from livestock manure, and replacing roughage with concentrated feed at mitigation cost of US$10/tCO2-eq in 2025, and (4) in the other land use sector, a mean annual mitigation potential of 6.5 MtCO2-eq/year can be achieved with a total mitigation cost of less than US$10 million (52 % of baseline land use emissions in 2025).

CARBON TAX: PROGRESS OR PLATITUDE FOR SOUTH AFRICA?

In light of the 2009 United Nations Copenhagen climate change conference, South Africa announced that in order to combat climate change it would commit to reducing domestic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 34 per cent by 2020 and 42 per cent by 2025. Due to this commitment, a carbon tax will be implemented as from 1 January 2015. This market-based instrument has received broad attention sparking debate as industries most affected, namely Eskom and the petroleum sector, have rallied together in complaint. The main debate being that despite the politically ambitious commitment to reduce GHG emissions, little scientific, economic or comparative evidence has been given to show that an influence will actually be had on the amount of GHG emitted. The purpose of this article is not to provide a detailed analysis of the entire scope of the South African climate change policy. It focuses on the more limited issue of carbon taxation. This does not however mean that the numerous other competing policy options, which still beg for attention, are not viable or will not be implemented in the future.

Climate change mitigation strategies in agriculture, forestry and other land use sectors in Vietnam

Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sectors account for 53 % of the domestic greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in Vietnam in 2000. However, due to political focus on adaptation, Vietnamese government has not formulated particular policy on mitigation in the sectors. This study aims to identify and assess mitigation potential in AFOLU sectors in Vietnam up to 2030 using AFOLU Bottom-up model. Therefore, the results can help government towards building mitigation strategies in the country. The methodology involves: (1) development of future assumptions of crops harvested areas, livestock population and area of land use and land use change and (2) identification of mitigation countermeasures with high potential and assessment of their cost-effectiveness. In 2030, 11 MtCO2eq/year of emission can be reduced by no-regret countermeasures which take zero or negative cost. In the case of full application of countermeasures, 48 MtCO2eq/year can be reduced compared to the baseline emission level. Mitigation countermeasures, which have great contribution for GHG reduction in Vietnam, are midseason drainage in rice paddy (7 MtCO2eq/year), off-season incorporation of rice straw (3 MtCO2eq/year) and conservation of existing protection forests (17 MtCO2eq/year). Based on our findings, a package of mitigation countermeasures at 10 USD/tCO2eq is expected to have the most economic efficiency and high mitigation for GHG mitigation in AFOLU sectors in Vietnam.

Comparing policies to combat emissions leakage: Border carbon adjustments versus rebates

We explore conditions determining which anti-leakage policies might be more effective complements to domestic greenhouse gas emissions regulation. We consider four policies that could be combined with unilateral emissions pricing to counter effects on international competitiveness: a border charge on imports, a border rebate for exports, full border adjustment, and domestic output-based rebating. Each option faces different potential legal hurdles in international trade law; each also has different economic impacts. While all can support competitiveness, none is necessarily effective at reducing global emissions. Nor is it possible to rank order the options; effectiveness depends on the relative emissions rates, elasticities of substitution, and consumption volumes. We illustrate these results with simulations for the energy-intensive sectors of three different economies, the United States, Canada and Europe. Although most controversial, full border adjustment is usually most effective, but output-based rebating for key manufacturing sectors can achieve many of the gains.