Domestic Football Research Articles

Why the men's UEFA Champions League reduces competitive balance in domestic football leagues: an empirical study of the French league

This paper provides some empirical foundation in support of the observation that the men's UEFA Champions League (CL) reduces competitive balance in domestic football leagues. It relies on the assumption that clubs' optimal budgets result from win-maximising strategies, accounting for similarly driven budget decisions from competitors in the domestic league and are thus ultimately determined through a Nash equilibrium process. Using a panel of 23 professional French clubs over nine consecutive seasons (2004/2005-2012/2013), we estimate such optimal budgets, and measure the extent to which access to the Champions League amplifies budget inequalities between clubs. Our results suggest that the CL amplifies inequalities by a magnitude significantly larger than the direct income received from UEFA for participating in the CL.

Designing New Funding Models for Russian Football Clubs

In Europe, most football clubs have long been positioned as business projects, which are active in financial markets and apply various funding tools. The 2018 FIFA World Cup inspired a new wave of interest in Russian football and created attractive conditions for applying new funding tools. The specifics of the economy surrounding sports development in Russia have led to a situation whereby most sports clubs depend on limited apportionments of budgetary funds, and require novel sources of additional funding for different development purposes, e.g. constructing stadiums, training grounds, youth academies and everyday operations. The aim of this research is to examine the best foreign practice in the field of attracting funding by sports clubs and propose adaptations for Russian conditions. This work presents a practice-oriented review of the most modern funding tools used in football, and analyses the capital structure of European football clubs, their funding policies and preferences. The competitive level of the European and Russian clubs, their relative financial capabilities, and their development prospects were considered, and the analytical mapping process ascribed prospective investment ratings to the Russian clubs. In a similar manner, recommendations as to how practical funding examples from European clubs may be adapted and followed in the Russian context are described. By comparison and contrast, likely candidates among Russian clubs for similar economic strategies are identified. The sources of information utilised for this process include annual reports from European football clubs, research studies, and academic articles, along with any available contextual information on Russian clubs. The study was limited by the secrecy of reporting in Russian football and the weak financial position of most Russian clubs, which restricts their funding opportunities. However, despite the special development model of domestic Russian football and the harsh economic conditions, the proposals formulated in this work can be implemented into the practical activity of any club, regardless its scale and can contribute to improving financial sustainability, competitive results and the integrated development of Russian clubs. The methods proposed can act as a catalyst for the gradual corporatisation of Russian football clubs and will be of interest to investors, business analysts, economic scientists and football fans alike.

Decentralization and Football*

ObjectivesWe show that decentralization of economic and political power makes a substantial difference in football. Decentralization increases the competitive balance of domestic football leagues and creates an advantage for clubs from decentralized countries in international competitions.MethodsWe run pooled cross‐sectional time‐series analyses using data from 35 European countries over the period 1950–2010 and logistic regressions with data from the first 18 editions of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) Champions League.ResultsWe find that regional autonomy boosts the competition among clubs from different regions and results in a greater competitive balance of domestic football leagues. Clubs from decentralized countries have a greater chance of winning, or at least playing in the final, than those from centralized countries.ConclusionsThe degree of countries’ political and economic decentralization positively increases the likelihood of winning football international trophies.

A Bosman ruling for science.

EMBO Reports (2018) 19: e47071[OpenUrl][1][FREE Full Text][2] With the World Cup over and the domestic football season now underway, the frenzied flurry of activity in the football transfer market is past, for now. All clubs (except Tottenham) have been getting their chequebooks out and doing deals, with players moving within countries, between leagues and across international borders. But what if scientists also commanded a transfer fee when they changed institution? It seems like a long time ago that Liverpool broke the Premiership transfer record by paying the then unheard‐of sum of 8.5 million pounds for striker Stan Collymore, an amount that nowadays would barely acquire a squad player for a top‐flight team. 1995, the year of Collymore's transfer, was arguably even more significant in footballing terms for something that happened in Belgium: the Bosman ruling. Marc Bosman, a journeyman player recently out of contract with RFC Liege, had lined up a move to French club Dunkerque. Dunkerque was however unable to meet the transfer fee demanded by RFC Liege. Consequently, RFC Liege refused to release him, while simultaneously reducing his wages because he was no longer a first‐team player. Bosman sued for restraint of trade, arguing to the European Court of Justice that RFC Liege was preventing his free movement. He won his case. It was a ruling that transformed football. From then on, out‐of‐contract players became free agents who could move without the imposition of a transfer fee. Clubs suddenly had an incentive to either hold on to their players or sell them before they left for nothing. It is by no means an understatement to say the Bosman ruling revolutionised football and paved the way for the global business it has now become. The ongoing rise of transfer … [1]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DEMBO%2BReports%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.15252%252Fembr.201847071%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F30279278%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [2]: /lookup/ijlink?linkType=FULL&journalCode=embor&resid=19/11/e47071&atom=%2Fembor%2F19%2F11%2Fe47071.atom

International comparison of differences in home advantage between level 1 and level 2 of domestic football leagues

The purpose of this study was to compare home advantage at the top two levels of the domestic leagues of a wide selection of countries worldwide. Limited previous work has been inconclusive with home advantage at level 2 appearing at least as high as at level 1. Home advantage was quantified for the most recent seven seasons of the top two levels for 47 countries worldwide and included 168,341 matches. A paired t‑test was used to assess the difference between levels for each country. Home advantage was significantly more likely to be higher at level 2 than at level 1. The difference was especially apparent in Bosnia–Herzegovina, Serbia and Iran (all p < 0.001). Kazakhstan was the only country with a significantly higher advantage at level 1. Possible factors that might be contributing to this finding include players and referees at level 1 being better trained to avoid being influenced by crowd support. Level 2 players may be more intimidated by performing away from home, less well equipped to cope with unfamiliar surroundings and routines, and will also have travelled in less comfort.

Virtual Patriot Games: American Football in The Times of London, 1888–1910

This study examines the American football press coverage in the Times of London from 1888 to November 1910. The time span covers the paper’s first mention of the game to the first game played in England. This period also coincides with increasing anxiety about the strength of the British Empire and unwanted American influences. During this time, athletic contests between the two nations turned into sites for the construction of national identities. Adapting the sport scholar Emma Poulton’s concept of ‘mediated patriot games’, the author argues that the American football coverage of the Times of London could be considered ‘virtual patriot games’, as the absence of domestic American football teams did not allow for direct competition. Two related narrative elements. The stories in the Times framed gridiron football as the pastime of the ‘other’, including translating rules and comparing the merits of rugby and American football. The reports also focused on the American game’s violence, confirming older traditions in British imaginations of America. Advancements in communication technologies, especially the telegraphic wire, were critical for the immediacy with which British readers consumed American sporting news. Contrary to current scholarship, British interpretations of American culture through gridiron football developed much earlier than the post-1970s information age.

The importance of domestic football leagues to international performance: predicting FIFA points

This paper estimates the importance of domestic professional and semi-professional football clubs to the performance of national team sides in earning FIFA points. It is likely the case that the pathway to further development and a spot on the national team for a young player is, at least initially, through a domestic football league. Yet the stage of development of football leagues differs markedly across nations. This paper finds that the presence and development of these leagues is a significant contributor to FIFA points for the national side, but with diminishing returns. Most recently, the largest effect is found for the nations that play in the African (CAF) and Oceania (OFC) zones, while the other four zones (AFC, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL and UEFA) share smaller positive effects. Even in the presence of limiting economic and demographic factors, the road to international football success is through the development of domestic leagues.

Democracy and Football*

ObjectivesThis article relies on data from two samples of 47 and 49 European countries from 1950 through 2011 and 1,980 and 1,960 football domestic leagues, respectively, to explore to what extent political regimes affect the competitive balance in domestic football (soccer) leagues.MethodsWe run OLS cross‐sectional regressions comparing democracies and nondemocracies and pooled cross‐sectional time‐series analyses conducted on the 13 countries that have experienced a transition to democracy after 1950.ResultsWe find that the percentage of league competitions won by the most successful club in the country is substantially lower in democracies than in nondemocracies. Democratic transitions trigger pressures to increase the competitive balance in football leagues.ConclusionsThe link between nondemocracies and specific teams breaks when a country experiences a transition to democracy and the economic liberalization that takes place in transitions to democracy disperses resources and generates competition among descending and ascending teams.

Civic integration or ethnic segregation? Models of ethnic and civic nationalism in club football/soccer

This essay evaluates the ways that soccer has been used by various actors in the promotion of both ethnic and civic forms of nationalism throughout the world. By focusing on domestic soccer, this paper further investigates the phenomenon of nationalism in the world and provides broader theoretical and practical answers to the questions of integration and ethnic identity. This essay starts by examining the issue of ethnicity in historic and contemporary football, provides a review of the academic literature on ethnic and civic nationalism and then discusses the role of ethnic and civic models of identity within club football. Most notable is a discussion of five categories, which best explain why ethnic nationalism persists, and why it was initially mobilized. The essay then moves to a discussion of why most soccer clubs in the world have made the transition to a more civic form of nationalism. Finally, conclusions are drawn on the issue of ethnic nationalism in domestic football.

Transnational Public Attention in European Club Football: Current trends and driving forces

ABSTRACTProfessional football is a highly globalized area. The paper analyses the impact of globalization on football audiences in European countries. It is argued that in the course of globalization, people are not only thrown into a transnational lifestyle, but may also develop a growing interest in what is going on outside their domestic territory. With regard to football, it is hypothesized that audiences may direct more and more attention to high-class football leagues and clubs abroad. This presumed shift of attention is empirically investigated with a new indicator: search engine queries. It is argued that queries addressing football clubs in foreign countries are expressions of transnational attention. These transnational queries are systematically analysed over a period of seven seasons (2005/2006–2011/2012). Results indicate that public attention to foreign football clubs has indeed increased over time, particularly in those countries with weaker domestic football leagues. Furthermore, the fluctuation of attention to these clubs can be explained systematically: attention increases with (a) the success of a club in European and national competitions, (b) the success of domestic players in an expatriate club and (c) the number of matches against domestic clubs in European club competitions. Although transnational attention is generally on the rise, its change over time still seems to depend largely on national identification.

Domestic versus International. Pakistani Football Fans Attitude towards Foreigner Teams of Different Format

Globalization brought broader opportunities for international brands. Few football clubs have already established themselves as brands and others are struggling to gain international fandom. Pakistan is sixth biggest country population wise so there is vast potential fan market waiting to be invaded by foreign clubs. The purpose of this study is to measure motives behind loyalty of Pakistani football fans for their favourite international football teams and favourite football club teams. Four measurement attachments, the Attributes scale (AS), Benefits scale (BS), Behavioral loyalty scale (BLS), and Attitudinal loyalty scale (ALS) were used to determined outcomes. The result revealed that international football tournaments are more popular than domestic football leagues. A comparison between both formats expressed that star players are major motive in both formats. Overall motives behind loyalty are same however their intensity is different in different formats.

More than vuvuzelas? Towards an understanding of soccer fandom in Johannesburg

The vuvuzela, a one metre-long plastic horn commonly found at South African domestic football matches, was a controversial issue for television viewers watching the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa as the broadcasters struggled to manage the droning sound of the horns. FIFA president Sepp Blatter and the local organizing committee defended vuvuzelas, with Blatter declaring that the horn ‘is what African and South African football is all about’. This paper questions such essentialized images of African soccer fandom. While there is a myriad of research on European soccer fandom, social science research on African sport often relegates sports fans to the passive role of observer, or omits them completely. Analysing sports fandom through the analytical lens of popular culture positions fandom as ‘the everyday practices and everyday experiences of ordinary folks’. Fandom is not simply society in microcosm but a space for the negotiation of a variety of identities. As such, Johannesburg soccer fandom reifies widening disparities between an emergent black middle class who eagerly consume an increasingly commodified game, and poorer supporters on the margins of the soccerscape.

Of Football, Anthropology and Transition. Narratives about Violence and Safety in Contemporary Serbia

The aim of this paper is to determine the ways in which the culture one lives in is conceptualized through the understanding of modern football. The focus is on the overlapping and negotiation of identity politics determined by the local cultural context, while also taking note of the increasing globalization of the sport itself. Special attention will be given to the discourse on safety, it being one of the key narratives about modern football. By following the media narratives on the topic, especially those concerning the murder of the French supporter Brice Taton in Belgrade in 2009, I will attempt to point out the images which dominate the conceptualization of contemporary domestic football, and through this, the period of transition which Serbia is currently going through.

The Analysis of Operation and Management Situation in Chinese Professional Football Clubs

China football league has started the professional reforms since 1994, but so far the operation of many domestic professional football clubs has been more and more difficult. Only a few clubs can survive and the vast majority of club investors are changed frequently, including normal transferring, normal capital operation, even being dissolved because of hardships. As for the reasons, the club's management system, the low return rate on investment, and the poor operating performance can be drawn. The thesis, from the perspective of clubs’ management system, will illustrate several reasons which influence the development of Chinese professional football clubs and put forward the feasible suggestions.

Effects of Football on Stock Markets: Return-Volatility Relationship

This paper assesses the effects of domestic football teams’ performances against foreign rivals on stock market returns as well as on the return-volatility relationship. The data from Chile, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom support the propositions that the results of football teams in international cups affect (i) stock market returns and (ii) the risk-return relationship. Evidence from Spain and the UK (countries considered football powerhouses) suggest that losses are associated with lower returns and higher risk aversion (agents become less risk loving) but the evidence from Chile and Turkey (where football is the most important sport but the teams are not as successful) reveals that wins are associated with higher returns and lower risk aversion (agents become more risk loving).

Comparison of home advantage in men's and women's football leagues in Europe

Most research into home advantage is based on men's sports. This article analyses home advantage in the women's domestic football leagues of Europe and makes a comparison with the corresponding men's football leagues. A total of 47,042 games were included. From 2004 to 2010, home advantage existed in the domestic women's soccer leagues of all 26 European countries analysed, ranging from 51.0% to 58.8% and averaging 54.2%. In every country, this was less than the corresponding men's home advantage which averaged 60.0%. Crowd effects, both on players and referees, and different gender perceptions of territorial protection are plausible reasons for the differences found. Using a regression model that controlled for the competitive balance of each league, as well as for crowd size, the Gender Gap Index, which quantifies the status of women in each country, was a significant predictor of the difference between men's and women's home advantage. As the status of women becomes closer to that of men within a country, the difference in home advantage is less between the men's and women's football leagues.

'Keeping the Peace': Social Identity, Procedural Justice and the Policing of Football Crowds

This paper explores the relevance of the Elaborated Social Identity Model of Crowd Behaviour and Procedural Justice Theory to an understanding of both the presence and absence of collective conflict during football (soccer) crowd events. It provides an analysis of data gathered during longitudinal ethnographic study of fans of Cardiff City Football Club—a group of supporters with a notorious history of involvement in ‘hooliganism’ within the English domestic Football Leagues. The analysis suggests that the perceived legitimacy among fans of the way they were policed affected the internal dynamics, patterns of collective action and overall levels of ‘compliance’ among the fan group. On this basis, we contend that these processes mediated both a long-term decline but also the sporadic re-emergence of collective conflict during crowd events involving the fans. The paper concludes by exploring the implications of our analysis for informing policy, practice and theory, particularly with respect to the importance of policing with consent as a route to conflict reduction in domestic football.

British-Asians and racism within contemporary English football

Racism within professional English football is said to have diminished in recent years as football has evolved since the days of the 1970s when monkey chants, thus overt racism, were commonly witnessed in the stands. However, although overt racism within the game has perhaps reduced, other forms of racism still exist and may have contributed to the lack of professional British-Asian football players. This essay will (a) explore notions of nationalism and racisms within Britain; (b) examine racism within contemporary domestic football; and (c) present interview material with half of the professional British-Asian demographic in England to gauge an insight into what barriers they may have faced, whether racism is still a prominent threat and reasons behind the poor participation levels. By focusing on these areas in detail, the essay intends to explore the British-Asian demographic and makes an attempt to theorize the future of British-Asians within professional English football.

The Europeanization of Austrian football: history, adaptation and transnational dynamics

In this article we seek to analyse the Europeanization of Austrian football as a consequence of both (1) pressures stemming from the European integration process and (2) changes in domestic football involving other transnational (non‐EU) European bodies and phenomena. As for the former, we look at the impact of the 1995 Bosman ruling of the European Court of Justice (both in terms of the nationality regime and the transfer regime) and the European Commission's activities to induce decentralized marketing of broadcasting rights in the EU. In terms of the second aspect, we investigate the impact of the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup (now Europa League) on Austrian football and to a lesser extent the role of transnational groupings/club forums and non‐governmental organization (NGO) networks. In addition, we analyse the relevance of a ‘historically determined’ Europeanization process in Austrian football. The hypothesis here is that Austria – as a former dual monarchy and multinational state – has been more internationally oriented right from the beginnings of the game.

Top Clubs’ Performance and the Competitive Situation in European Domestic Football Competitions

The increase in payouts to European football clubs appearing in the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) Champions League (CL) in 1999-2000 had a lasting impact on the performance of top clubs in domestic football leagues. This policy change is treated as a natural experiment to compare the level of competitive balance in five top European leagues (England, Spain, Italy, Germany, and France) before and after the turn of the millennium. Based on several competitive balance measures, this article reveals a significant decrease in competitive balance after the modification of the CL payout system.