Domestic Energy Resources Research Articles

The Political History of Hydraulic Fracturing’s Expansion Across the West

DOI 10.1515/cjpp-2013-0041 Calif. J. Politics Policy 2014; 6(1): 153–186 Robert E. Forbis Jr* The Political History of Hydraulic Fracturing’s Expansion Across the West Abstract: This article presents an historical-based analysis of how executive branch actions altered federal domestic energy policies and the effect of that shift on the Bureau of Land Management’s (BLM) domestic energy policies and resource alloca- tions. The analysis is supported by interview data collected from among Department of Interior officials who served during the Bush-Cheney administration as well as BLM administrators located in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. The analy- sis and interviews were conducted at the close of President Bush’s tenure in office (2008–2009). The article includes an analysis of archival and government documents describing executive branch actions directing the BLM to favor the energy develop- ment industry’s use of the hydraulic fracturing development process. First, these events are presented chronologically to illustrate how a president and his executive appointees established changes to federal energy policies at the agency level that led to the reallocation of resources favoring domestic energy development. Second, an interpretive analysis of the interview data is presented as a means of validating the initial, document-based analysis. As the article concludes, documents as well as the voices of those most closely involved in the policymaking process confirm that executive branch actions shifted federal domestic energy policies, which then resulted in increased numbers and types of federal development projects using the hydraulic fracturing and directional drilling energy resource development process expanded rapidly across the states of the Rocky Mountain West. Keywords: Bureau of land management; energy policy; environmental policy; executive branch; ­hydraulic fracturing; subgovernment theory. *Corresponding author: Robert E. Forbis Jr, Texas Tech University, Political Science, P.O. Box 41015, Lubbock, TX 79409-1015, USA, Tel.: 806-742-4047, Fax: 806-742-0850, e-mail: robert.forbis@ttu.edu 1 T he Political Will-Power to Achieve a Domestic Policy Objective Prior to being sworn in President George W. Bush announced his first nomina- tion to oversee the federal energy-related administrative agencies. In December of

The economics of clean energy resource development and grid interconnection in Africa

This paper analyzes the optimal options for supplying electricity to national economies from both domestic and distant energy resources using high voltage lines to transmit the substantial renewable energy resources of Africa. To meet the growing demand, Africa will need to provide 5.2 GW of new generation per year through 2025. This figure represents an increase of 65% from the 2010 level and will assist in connecting more than 11 million new customers per year through the development of a transmission network. The total discounted system cost is approximately 8% of the continent's GDP. Approximately two-thirds of the discounted system cost is associated with new generation, and the remaining one-third is associated with the development of the transmission network. From 2010 to 2025, trade expansion reduces the total system cost by 21% relative to the business as usual (BAU).

Is there a role for biofuels in promoting energy self sufficiency and security? A CGE analysis of biofuel policy in Thailand

Given the rising price of crude oil, some developing countries including Thailand are looking towards developing their domestic renewable energy resources, in particular biofuels. However, there are concerns about the possible adverse effects such a policy strategy would have on key variables such as sectoral output, land allocation and the effects of prices, particularly food prices. This study develops a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model of the Thailand economy that features enhancements of the energy sector and uses it to analyze the government’s recent renewable energy development plan. This plan aims to increase domestic energy use from renewable sources to replace fossil fuel imports. The study simulated specific policies contained in the plan. Among other things, we found that promoting biofuel use causes a rapid increase in the price of biofuel and biofuel feedstock in the short-run, whereas these prices only increase slightly in the long-run due to more elastic supplies. The prices of food and other products marginally increase, implying that food security is not undermined by the policy. On the basis of the findings, the study recommends a review of some of the targets because they were found to be rather high, and a phasing in of others.

Demand-supply mismatch, energy security and sustainable development in India

The objective of this paper is to analyze the trend and pattern of energy use, demand-supply mismatch, energy challenges, the cause and effect relationship between energy and economic development, and it’s sustainability in India. The study is based on secondary data collected from energy policy reports, economic survey of India and reports of oil corporations of India. The study has used methods of compound growth rate and energy elasticity to analyse the present and future energy challenge in India. In terms of primary energy consumption, India ranks fifth in the world and accounts for about 3.5 per cent of the world’s commercial energy demand. But the country lacks sufficient domestic energy resources, particularly of petroleum and natural gas and must import much of its growing requirements. Currently, about 35% of India’s commercial energy needs are imported. Energy security and sustainable development are critical issues to ensure India’s economic growth. The trend of the primary commercial energy consumption in India shows that electricity and coal are the major sources of energy consumed in India. The demand for coal and electricity increased at 8 % to 9 % during last 3 years. Coal is essential source of energy in India and three-fourth of electricity is generated from coal in thermal plants. The oil and natural gas reserve in India is very low. Total coal energy requirement is projected to increase from 283MT in 2011-12 to 937 MT in 2031-32 which is four times rise in 20 years. The projected oil energy requirement increases almost at 20 % per year whereas GDP growth rate is only 8% to 9 % per year. Natural gas requirement is projected to rise from 48MT in 2011-12 to 197 MT in 2031-32 which is more than four times in 20 years. During 10 years from 2011-12 to 2021-22, the total coal demand will increase from 627 MT to 1131 MT. The per capita primary energy consumption in India is a low 305 kg against the world average of 1,487 kg. Accordingly, with a total primary energy consumption of 314.7 million metric tones of oil equivalent (MMTOE), India accounts for just 3.4% of the total world primary energy consumption. The share of primary energy consumption is projected to increase from 72.2% to 90.4% during the same period. The share of non-commercial energy will significantly reduce to 9.1% in 2031-32. The projected compound annual growth rate of total primary energy requirement from 2006 to 2032 is 5.4 % where as it is only 0.76 % in case of Non-commercial Energy. The paper focuses on the projections, growth rates and GDP elasticity of total energy requirements. During fifteen year period from 1995 to 2010, the compound growth rate of total primary energy is 2.9 % and for total primary commercial energy is 4.9%. In order to deliver a sustained growth of 8% through 2031, India would at least need to grow it’s primary energy supply by 3 to 4 times whereas the electricity supply needs to grow at the rate of 5 to 7 times the present consumption.

Source characteristics of seismicity associated with underground wastewater disposal: A case study from the 2008 Dallas-Fort Worth earthquake sequence

Oil and natural gas production from shale formations using hydraulic fracturing or “hydrofracking” techniques has grown rapidly since 2008 and represents a vital and growing domestic energy resource. The waste fluids from increased production (called “brine”) are typically injected into deep underground disposal wells to avoid discharge into streams and other sensitive drinking water supplies. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that approximately 400 million gallons of brine are currently disposed of on a daily basis in more than 28,000 wells in the United States, and the volume of injection continues to grow dramatically. This process has recently been implicated as the source of some potentially induced seismicity in gas-producing states such as Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, and Ohio.

Commentary: Powering America with sustainable energy in the 21st century

The United States continues to rely heavily on foreign oil and coal-based electricity for its transportation and power generation needs, respectively. The perennial lack of a national energy policy has deprived the United States of strong direction towards the development of sustainable domestic energy resources, which are abundantly available, enhance the country's energy security, and reduce its carbon footprint. Technology innovation and economies of scale in the last ten years have made wind, solar thermal, biomass, and natural gas viable and cost-competitive alternatives to highly polluting coal. Biomass and natural gas can produce base-load electricity, whereas wind and solar can address peak demand, when combined with fossils or with energy storage systems like batteries. In vehicles, biofuels and electric motors can rather seamlessly replace gasoline and reduce significantly our dependence on foreign oil. While each form of alternative energy has its own advantages, they can all contribute to economic growth in the 21st century by attracting investment, creating jobs, generating tax revenues, and making the entire US economy more sustainable.

From Survival to Sovereignty: 1970s Energy Development and Indian Self-Determination in Montana's Powder River Basin

Abstract This article explores how increasing demands for domestic energy resources during the 1970s threatened the survival of American Indian tribes, leading to an impassioned indigenous movement to protect reservation resources and change federal law to increase tribal sovereignty. Beginning with a close examination of the specific reasons why the Northern Cheyenne and Crow resisted potentially lucrative energy development, the investigation follows a broadening national movement to equip tribes with the tools necessary to manage their own affairs. In the face of intense pressure to develop energy resources, American Indians reclaimed control over their reservations and forced changes in federal law that provided the fullest expression of tribal sovereignty since the nineteenth century.

The causal relationship between energy consumption and economic growth in Lebanon

This paper investigates the dynamic causal relationship between energy consumption and economic growth in Lebanon over the period 1980–2009. Within a bivariate framework, imposed on us due to data limitations, and in an effort to increase the robustness of our results, we employ a variety of causality tests, namely, Hsiao, Toda-Yamamoto, and vector error correction based Granger causality tests. We find strong evidence of a bidirectional relationship both in the short-run and in the long-run, indicating that energy is a limiting factor to economic growth in Lebanon. From a policy perspective, the confirmation of the feedback hypothesis warns against the use of policy instruments geared towards restricting energy consumption, as these may lead to adverse effects on economic growth. Consequently, there is a pressing need to revise the current national energy policy that calls for a 5% energy conservation target. Also, to shield the country from external supply shocks, given its substantial dependence on energy imports, policymakers should emphasize the development of domestic energy resources. Further, the most pertinent implication is that relaxing the present electric capacity shortages should be made a national priority, in view of its potential positive effect on the economy.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF UKRAINE

Abstract. Disparities in the production structure, moral and physical obsolescence and depreciation offixed assets in economics, low-effective use fuel and energy resources (FER) and water demands excessiveuse of energy, requiring substantial imports of energy resources (over 50% of needs). The resultingdependence of the basic branches of economy of Ukraine, primarily fuel and energy complex, from theexporting countries of fuel resources and, consequently, increasing the threat to energy safety. Meanwhile,such situation is in contrudiction of the principles of sustainable developments, adopted on the Summit inRio-de-Janeiro (1992). Ukraine needs the more active energy efficient policy.Keywords: energy conservation, energy efficiency, energy intensity of gross domestic product, energysafety state, fuel and energy resources, innovative development, structural changes ineconomy.

A CGE Approach to the Analysis of Biofuels for Promoting Energy Self Sufficiency and Security Policy in Thailand-Methodology

Abstract Given the rising price of crude oil, some developing countries including Thailand are looking towards developing their domestic renewable energy resources, in particular biofuels. However, there are concerns about the possible adverse effects such a policy strategy would have on key variables such as sectoral output, land allocation and the effects of prices, particularly food prices. This study develops a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model of the Thailand economy that features enhancements of the energy sector and uses it to analyse the government's recent renewable energy development plan. This plan aims to increase domestic energy use from renewable sources to replace fossil fuel imports. This paper discusses the methodology used in the analysis.

CO2 mitigation model of future power plants with integrated carbon capture and storage in Thailand

Thailand currently relies on natural gas, coal, and oil for electricity production. Natural gas and oil fields are the plentiful domestic energy resources in the Gulf of Thailand, but are projected to be available only in the next decade. Using domestic natural gas would reduce national energy security. Due to its low price, coal will dominate in electricity generation in Thailand. However, more utilization of coal results in increasing CO2 emissions. To comply with the low-carbon society policy of the Royal Thai Government, carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) for the future committed power plants in Thailand is introduced and analysed using the market allocation model, a least-cost energy planning tool. In this study, CO2 mitigation scenarios include integrated CCS to new gas- and coal-based power plants, nuclear power and renewable-based power plants and these were introduced as mitigation options. In energy-demand forecasting, share of coal-based plants is projected to increase from 0.72% in 2006 to 14.97% in 2030, while the share of gas-based plants decreases from 79.24 to 53.25% in the same period. This study also presents possible gas and oil fields for storing CO2 in the deep saline aquifer in the Gulf of Thailand. Results show the optimal CO2 incremental cost and revenue when applied with clean development mechanism and feed-in-tariff for renewable energy and the CCS project in Thailand.

Tribal Energy Resource Agreements: '[A] Great Mischief for Indian Energy Development' and the Resulting Need for Reform

Today, despite political acrimony on many domestic issues, both political parties and the majority of the American public seem to agree that the country should find new, domestic sources of energy. When looking for potential domestic energy resources, Indian country stands out as ideal territory for various types of energy development, as “[t]he Bureau of Indian Affairs estimates that while Indian land comprises only five percent of the land area in the United States, it contains an estimated ten percent of all energy resources in the United States.” In addition to traditional energy resources, Indian country also has substantial potential to provide alternative energy resources. Recognizing the potential key role that tribes will play in the development of the country’s domestic energy resources, Congress and federal agencies recognize that tribes should be included in future plans to develop energy resources. Moreover, many tribes are also interested in energy development to potentially promote tribal sovereignty and self-determination when it can be done in a manner that is consistent with tribal customs and traditions.Recognizing the many potential benefits of increased energy development in Indian country, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 includes a provision designed to spur energy development in Indian country, Tribal Energy Resource Agreements (TERAs). Assuming a federally-recognized tribe can meet the numerous established criteria, the tribe may enter into a TERA with the Secretary of Interior. Once a TERA exists, the tribe is responsible for managing energy development within its territory. Additionally, TERAs allow tribes to avoid some federal requirements, such as project compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (although the tribe must put an environmental assessment program into place before a TERA will be approved). Despite these incentives, no tribe to date has entered into a TERA. The article explores the reasons for the lack of tribal interest in TERAs. In particular, the article focuses on the provision that waives federal liability once a tribe has entered into a TERA. The article concludes that this waiver of federal liability is a significant contributor to the lack of tribal interest in TERA provisions. Because the article assumes that energy development in Indian country is beneficial to both tribal governments and the federal government and the TERA provisions should, therefore, be reformed to spur tribal interest, the article proposes potential solutions or TERA reforms that would likely lead to increased tribal interest. The proposed reforms include re-establishing federal liability under TERA agreements, or, in the alternative, removing all federal requirements placed upon the tribes through the TERA provisions in order to allow tribes to exercise true sovereignty. The article ultimately concludes that any one of the proposed revisions should spur tribal interest in the TERA provisions.

The coming sustainable energy transition: History, strategies, and outlook

Facing global climate change and scarce petroleum supplies, the world must switch to sustainable energy systems. While historical transitions between major energy sources have occurred, most of these shifts lasted over a century or longer and were stimulated by resource scarcity, high labor costs, and technological innovations. The energy transition of the 21st century will need to be more rapid. Unfortunately, little is known about how to accelerate energy transitions. This article reviews past transitions and factors behind them, along with their time frames. Three modern case studies are discussed: Brazil, which shifted from an oil-based transportation system to one based on sugarcane-ethanol (success); France, which shifted from oil-fired electric power to nuclear power (success); and the United States, which attempted to shift from foreign oil to a mix of domestic energy resources (failure). Lessons from these attempts to govern energy transitions are discussed. Several policy instruments to accelerate a transition are identified, though even under ideal circumstances a global energy supply transition will be very slow. Given the need to simultaneously implement programs in countries with different political economies, a greater focus on energy efficiency, promotion of Smart Grids, and possibly a new treaty should yield more timely results.

Experimental studies on fumigation of ethanol in a small capacity Diesel engine

Abstract To diversify the mix of domestic energy resources and to reduce dependence on imported oil, ethanol is widely investigated for applying in combination with Diesel fuel to reduce pollutants, including smoke and NO x . Present work aims at developing a fumigation system for introduction of ethanol in a small capacity Diesel engine and to determine its effects on emission. Fumigation was achieved by using a constant volume carburetor. Different percentages of ethanol fumes with air were then introduced in the Diesel engine, under various load conditions. Ethanol is an oxygenated fuel and lead to smooth and efficient combustion. Atomization of ethanol also results in lower combustion temperature. During the present study, gaseous emission has been found to be decreasing with ethanol fumigation. Results from the experiment suggest that ethanol fumigation can be effectively employed in existing compression ignition engine to achieve substantial saving of the limited Diesel oil. Results show that fumigated Diesel engine exhibit better engine performance with lower NOx, CO, CO 2 and exhaust temperature. Ethanol fumigation has resulted in increase of unburned hydrocarbon (HC) emission in the entire load range. Considering the parameters, the optimum percentage was found as 15% for ethanol fumigation.

Contribution of natural gas for sustainable development in Portugal

Portugal has strongly limited domestic energy resources, since imports almost 90% of its energy needs and its energy production is totally from renewable energy sources. The addition of natural gas to the Portuguese energy mix in 1997 helped to diversify Portugal’s energy sources and is a contribution to the mitigation of environmental problems. In 1997 also ceased the production and use of domestic coal. In fact, Portugal is working to reduce the growth in energy use and CO2 emissions, in order to follow the Kyoto Protocol. This measure can be linked to environmental sustainability policies, creating the opportunity for new business to appear. Natural gas, in some applications, can substitute the electricity, implying a decrease in price. Security of gas supply is an important issue, since Portugal depends mainly on a single supplier. This paper aims at analysing the emerging gas market, (threats and opportunities), its evolution andcomparison with other OECD countries.

The Promise and Realities of Biogas Produced from Landfills and Farm Waste

ABSTRACT Full realization of the potential of converting landfill gas (LFG) and farm manure to biogas and LFG could, together, significantly supplement our national supply of natural gas. Another advantage of these sources is that they tend to be located near end users and may be considered analogous in some respects to distributed generation because the gas they provide does not have to be transported long distances. There are many ways to generate electricity and few ways to produce biogas. Unfortunately, factors such as constantly changing natural gas prices, the relatively small size of individual projects from a financing prospective, the fact that historic technology for converting animal waste did not always perform properly and the “comfort level” of gas sellers in remaining with existing natural gas supplies have seriously hindered the development of these sources. Federal and state tax benefits and incentive programs (such as the federal stimulus) offer the promise of increased development of these important domestic energy resources and available technology provides the possibility of realizing these domestic energy resources and contributing to gas price stability and domestic energy security.

The Assessment of Coal's Contribution to Sustainable Energy Development in Turkey

Turkey's energy consumption has grown and will continue to grow along with its economy. Energy demand of the country is growing by 8% annually, one of the highest rates in the world. Turkey has very limited oil, natural gas and hard coal reserves. Turkey is currently heavily dependent on imports to meet its energy demand because of limited domestic energy resources. Lignite is the country's most important domestic energy source. Turkey has approximately 10400 million tons of lignite and 1300 million tons of hard coal reserves. This paper analyzed the structure of coal consumption over the past three decades in Turkey using the information of relevant researches and the published statistical data, and also analyzed the changing trends in the energy consumption structure, to provide some reference for the development of energy in Turkey. This work has attracted considerable interest because the subject of coal energy and its effect in the daily lives of people maintains a keen interest. The paper examines entirely new areas of coal energy research, summarizes recent trends, and discusses the most important current methods used to produce coal fuels.

The Promise and Realities of Biogas Produced from Landfills and Farm Waste

Full realization of the potential of converting landfill gas (LFG)and farm manure to biogas and LFG could, together, significantlysupplement our national supply of natural gas. Another advantage ofthese sources is that they tend to be located near end users and maybe considered analogous in some respects to distributed generationbecause the gas they provide does not have to be transported longdistances. There are many ways to generate electricity and few waysto produce biogas. Unfortunately, factors such as constantly changingnatural gas prices, the relatively small size of individual projects froma financing prospective, the fact that historic technology for convertinganimal waste did not always perform properly and the “comfort level”of gas sellers in remaining with existing natural gas supplies have seri-ously hindered the development of these sources. Federal and state taxbenefits and incentive programs (such as the federal stimulus) offer thepromise of increased development of these important domestic energyresources and available technology provides the possibility of realizingthese domestic energy resources and contributing to gas price stabilityand domestic energy security.

Major Technical Barriers to a “Hydrogen Economy”

Hydrogen is considered in many countries to be an important alternative energy vector and a bridge to a sustainable energy future. The “hydrogen economy” is being promoted as one of the solutions of the world's energy problems. A hydrogen economy, the long-term goal of many nations, can potentially confer energy security, along with economic and environmental benefits. The Global Hydrogen Vision envisions hydrogen as a flexible, safe, affordable, domestic energy resource to be used in all sectors of the economy and all regions of the world. There are many technical and economic challenges to be overcome before the vision of a hydrogen economy becomes reality. Technical challenges in achieving a hydrogen economy include lowering the cost of hydrogen production, storage, delivery, and end use applications.

Projecting India's energy requirements for policy formulation

Energy policy has to have a long-term perspective. To formulate it one needs to know the contours of energy requirements and options. Different approaches have been followed in literature, each with their own problems. A top down econometric approach provides little guidance on policies, while a bottom up approval requires too much knowledge and too many assumptions. Using top-down econometric approach for aggregate overall benchmarking and a detailed activity analysis model, Integrated Energy System Model, for a few large sectors, provides a unique combination for easing the difficulties of policy formulation. The model is described in this paper. Eleven alternate scenarios are built, designed to map out extreme points of feasible options. Results show that even after employing all domestic energy resource to their full potential, there will be a continued rise of fossil fuel use, continued importance of coal, and continued rise of import dependence. Energy efficiency emerges as a major option with a potential to reduce energy requirement by as much as 17%. Scenario results point towards pushing for development of alternative sources.