Dog Rabies Control Research Articles

Assessment of Immune Responses to Rabies Vaccination in Free-Ranging Dogs in Bengaluru, India.

Rabies is a fatal encephalomyelitis mainly transmitted to humans and other animals by rabid dog bites. Hence, vaccination programs are being instituted for the control of rabies in dogs. Though stray dogs have been vaccinated for years under various programs initiated for control of the disease, the effectiveness of these programs can be ascertained only by assessing the immunity of these dogs. With this in view, a study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the ongoing mass dog vaccination (MDV) program by the Bengaluru City Municipal Corporation, Bengaluru, India. Whole blood and serum samples (n = 260) from vaccinated stray dogs in 26 wards of 8 corporation zones were tested by rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) as well as an in-house quantitative indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) for a humoral response and by interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA for a cellular response. As determined by the cut-off value of 0.5 IU/mL of serum, 71% and 87% of the samples from vaccinated dogs revealed adequate levels of antibodies presumed to confer protection by RFFIT and iELISA, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of the iELISA were 100% and 63.3%, respectively. The IFN-γ ELISA revealed adequate cellular response in 50% of the samples. The quantitative iELISA was found to be useful in large-scale seromonitoring of MDV programs to aid in the elimination of dog-mediated rabies.

Where Rabies Is Not a Disease. Bridging Healthworlds to Improve Mutual Understanding and Prevention of Rabies.

Deeply embedded in local social, cultural, and religious settings, traditional healing is part of dog bite and rabies management in many rabies endemic countries. Faith healing, which usually encompasses a more holistic approach to health including physical, mental and social dimensions, is rare in the context of rabies. In Gujarat, Western India, the Hindu goddess Hadkai Mata is worshiped by low-caste communities as the Mother of Rabies in the event of a dog bite to a person or their livestock. This belief might influence people's attitudes and behaviors toward rabies prevention but has never been investigated. Through 31 in-depth interviews with healers and staff of Hadkai Mata temples, this paper explores the system of knowledge around dog and human rabies that is built and shared in these places of worship and healing. Qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed looking for convergences and divergences with the recently launched National Action Plan for dog-mediated Rabies Elimination. Results suggest that while the etiology of human rabies as a social illness is usually explained as the goddess's wish to correct misbehaving people and restore positive interpersonal relations, there is some appreciation for the biological processes of infection that lead to rabies as a physical disease. Hadkai Mata is believed to cure rabies if her patients undergo the necessary process of moral growth. Although conventional post-exposure prophylaxis is not opposed per se, it is often delayed by patients who seek traditional treatment first. Some reluctance was expressed toward mass dog vaccination because it is seen as an interference in how the goddess controls dogs, by enraging them—hence infecting them with rabies—and sending them to bite wrongdoers. Addressing these cultural perceptions is likely to be critical in achieving effective control of dog rabies in this region. The study highlights the value of multidisciplinary approaches in the control and elimination of rabies, as well as other zoonoses. This includes the importance of understanding different culturally- and religiously- mediated ways in which humans relate to animals; and looking for points of convergence and mutual understanding, upon which context-tailored, linguistically-accurate, locally acceptable, feasible and effective strategies can be designed.

Rabies mortality and morbidity associated with animal bites in Africa: a case for integrated rabies disease surveillance, prevention and control: a scoping review

ObjectiveThe objective of this scoping review was to map the current situation and available evidence and gaps on rabies morbidity, mortality, integrated rabies surveillance programmes, and existing prevention and control...

Owned and free-roaming dogs in the North West of Tunisia: estimation, characteristics and application for the control of dog rabies

Understanding the structure of dog population and the evaluation of the accessibility of dogs to vaccination is essential to succeed in the fight against dog rabies and to adapt the strategy of its control. We studied the characteristics of the unowned and owned dogs using the beck method during a rabies vaccination campaign in randomly selected sectors (urban and rural sites) in the North West of Tunisia. During a door-to-door investigation of households, data on owned dogs were collected to describe the owned population dog. A photographic-recapture method was used to characterize and estimate the size of the unowned dogs. A total of 1432 households accounting for 5403 inhabitants were interviewed during the survey (1298 (90.6%) in the urban site and 134 (9.3%) in the rural site). The dog-owning households were significantly higher in the rural site (76.1% (102/134)) compared to the urban site (17.8% (231/1298)) (P < 0.000000). Of the 17.8% dog-owning households in urban site, 58.4% owned one dog and 9% between 4 and 8 dogs. While, of the 76.1% dog-owning households in rural site, 24.5% owned one dog and 32.3% owned between 4 and 10 dogs. The dog: human ratio was 1:11 in the urban site and 1:1.6 in the rural site. The dog population density was estimated at 16 dogs/km2 and 4 dogs/km2 in the urban and rural sites, respectively. The confinement practices varied significantly among the urban and rural sites (P < 0.000000). The percentage of free-roaming owned dogs was 51.1% in the rural site and 31.4% in the urban site. More than 60.0% of the owned dogs in the urban site were confined. The majority of dogs in the rural site were born in the house, although, a high percentage (56.7%) of owned dogs in the urban site was adopted from neighbours, others sectors, or countries. The vaccination coverage findings indicated that 77.8% and 84.2% of the owned dog were vaccinated in the urban and rural sites, respectively. The estimated size of the free-roaming dogs was 72 dogs in the urban site (Kalaat Senan) and 16 dogs in the rural site (Sod el Khir).

Investigation of the frequency of rabies in EMRO countries: A review study

Objective: Rabies is a dangerous zoonotic infectious disease. Dog bites cause 99% of all human deaths from rabies. In Europe and North America, however, with the successful control of rabies in dogs, the wild cycle of rabies is the major and dominant cycle of disease. According to the WHO classification, the Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office (EMRO) countries are divided into population health laws, health system performance, and health spending levels. This review aimed to evaluate the epidemiology of rabies in the EMRO countries in these three categories. Methods: In this study, using some search engines (PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar) were searched about the frequency of rabies in EMRO countries without considering the time and related content. Results: In some parts of the world, including most countries in the region, EMRO, rabies is endemic and a serious problem for human and animal health. Conclusions: According to the global strategic plan to end human deaths from rabies by 2030, all the countries in the EMRO region and the international organizations such as WHO, OIE, etc., must take the necessary measures to control this disease. Regional and global cooperation, and comprehensive and effective policies, are required to solve this issue. Keywords: rabies; surveillance; epidemiology.

Assessing the practicalities of joint snakebite and dog rabies control programs: Commonalities and potential pitfalls.

Both rabies and snakebite primarily affect underserved and impoverished communities globally, with an estimated 200,000 people dying from these diseases annually, and the greatest burden being in Africa and Asia. Both diseases have been neglected and have thus been denied appropriate prioritization, support, and interventions, and face many of the challenges common to all neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). In line with the call for integrated approaches between NTDs in the recent NTD Roadmap, we sought to build upon previous conceptualizations for an integrated approach by identifying the commonalities between snakebite and rabies to explore the feasibility of an integrated approach. While multiple areas for potential integration are identified, we highlight the potential pitfalls to integrating rabies and snakebite programs, considering the nuances that make each disease and its intervention program unique. We conclude that health system strengthening, and capacity building should be the focus of any integrated approach among NTDs, and that by strengthening overall health systems, both rabies and snakebite can advocate for further support from governments and stakeholders.

Owned and Free-Roaming Dogs in the North West of Tunisia: Estimation, Characteristics and Application for the Control of Dog Rabies

Understanding the structure of dog population and the evaluation of accessibility of dogs to vaccination is essential to succeed the fight against dog rabies and to adapt the strategy of its control. We studied the characteristics of the unowned and owned dogs using the marking method during a rabies vaccination campaign in a randomly selected sectors (urban and rural sites) in the north west of Tunisia. During a door-to-door vaccination campaign data on owned dogs were collected to describe the owned population dog. A photographic-recapture method was used to characterize and to estimate the size of the unowned dogs. A total of 1432 households accounting 5403 inhabitants was interviewed during the survey (1298 (90.6%) in the urban site and 134 (9.3%) in the rural site). The dog-owning households were significantly higher in the rural site (76.1% (102/134)) compared to the urban site (17.7% (231/1298)) (P<0.000000). Of the 17.7% dog-owning households in urban site, 58.4% owned one dog and 9% between 4 and 8 dogs. While, of the 76.1% dog-owning households in rural site, 24.5% owned one dogs and 32.3% owned between 4 and 10 dogs. The dog: human ratio was 1:11 in the urban site and 1:1.6 in the rural site. The dog population density was high in the urban site (16 dogs/km2) compared to the rural site (4 dogs/km2). The confinement practices varied significantly among the urban and the rural sites (P<0.000000). The percentage of free-roaming owned dogs was higher in the rural site (51.1%) compared to the urban site (31.4%). The majority of owned dogs in the urban site were confined (66.6%). The majority of dogs in the rural sites were born in the house, although, a high percentage (56.7%) of owned dogs in the urban site were adopted from neighbours, others sectors or countries. The vaccination coverage findings indicated that 77.8% and 84.2% of the owned dog were vaccinated in the urban and rural sites, respectively. The estimated size of the free-roaming dogs was 72 dogs in the urban site (Kalaat Senan) and 16 dogs in the rural site (Sod el Khir).

Role of Oral Rabies Vaccines in the Elimination of Dog-Mediated Human Rabies Deaths.

Domestic dogs are responsible for nearly all the »59,000 global human rabies deaths that occur annually. Numerous control measures have been successful at eliminating dog-mediated human rabies deaths in upper-income countries, including dog population management, parenteral dog vaccination programs, access to human rabies vaccines, and education programs for bite prevention and wound treatment. Implementing these techniques in resource-poor settings can be challenging; perhaps the greatest challenge is maintaining adequate herd immunity in free-roaming dog populations. Oral rabies vaccines have been a cornerstone in rabies virus elimination from wildlife populations; however, oral vaccines have never been effectively used to control dog-mediated rabies. Here, we convey the perspectives of the World Organisation for Animal Health Rabies Reference Laboratory Directors, the World Organisation for Animal Health expert committee on dog rabies control, and World Health Organization regarding the role of oral vaccines for dogs. We also issue recommendations for overcoming hesitations to expedited field use of appropriate oral vaccines.

Desirable Dog-Rabies Control Methods in an Urban setting in Africa -a Mathematical Model

Desirable Dog-Rabies Control Methods in an Urban setting in Africa -a Mathematical Model

Surveillance Opportunities and the Need for Intersectoral Collaboration on Rabies in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka is progressing towards its goal of eliminating human rabies. This goal rests on programs designed to limit canine rabies, which in turn requires a combination of targeted dog rabies control and a better understanding of the movement of the virus between domestic animals, people, and wildlife. Coordinated and integrated surveillance of the disease between human and animal health sectors underpins successful rabies elimination. Our objective was to review surveillance data from 2005 to 2014 to assemble the first multispecies synthesis of rabies information in Sri Lanka and, in doing so, assess needs and opportunities for a One Health approach to rabies surveillance in the country. Our descriptive epidemiological findings were consistent with other studies showing a decline in human cases, endemic and unchanging numbers of dog cases, a relationship between human density and the occurrence of human and animal cases, and significant gaps in understanding trends in rabies incidences in livestock and wildlife. Assessing the trends in the data from the three government organizations responsible for rabies surveillance was difficult due to lack of information on animal population sizes, unquantified sampling biases due to inequities in access to diagnostic capacities, regulatory and administrative barriers, and a continued reliance on clinical means to establish a diagnosis. The information required for a comprehensive rabies control programme was not standardized or consistent, was not in one place, showed significant gaps in completeness, and was not amenable to routine and rapid analysis. Achieving rabies elimination in Sri Lanka would benefit from harmonization of diagnostic and information management standards across animal and human health sectors as well as equitable access to diagnostic capacity for all regions and species.

Ecology and epidemiology of rabies in humans, domestic animals and wildlife in Namibia, 2011-2017.

Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease that causes a heavy burden on societies. Namibia, a country in southern Africa, is aiming at controlling the disease in its main reservoir, the domestic dog. To facilitate the implementation comprehensive information on the ecology and epidemiology of the disease and surveillance is of utmost importance. The study presented assesses the baseline data for both human and animal rabies surveillance in Namibia in recent times and establishes correlations with ecological and socio-economic data in order to provide an up-to-date picture on the epidemiology of rabies in Namibia. For instance, it was important to identify the main drivers in the epidemiology, and whether the control strategy by mass vaccination of dogs is undermined by cycles of rabies in wildlife. Rabies in humans was reported mainly from the Northern Communal Areas (NCAs), with a total of 113 cases from 2011 to 2017, representing an incidence of between 1.0 and 2.4 annual human rabies deaths per 100,000 inhabitants. Kavango, the region with the highest human rabies incidence was also the region with the lowest animal rabies surveillance intensity. Generally, the vast majority (77%) of dog samples originated from communal farm land, followed by urban areas (17%), while only a small fraction (3%) was submitted from freehold farm areas. In contrast, kudu and eland submissions were almost exclusively from freehold farmland (76%) and urban areas (19%), whereas the submission of cattle samples was evenly distributed among freehold farms (46%) and communal farm land (46%). The likelihood of sample submission decreased exponentially with distance to one of the two laboratories. Overall, 67% (N = 1,907) of all samples submitted tested rabies-positive, with the highest positivity rate observed in kudus (89%) and jackals (87%). The transmission cycle of rabies in dogs appears restricted to the northern communal areas of Namibia, whilst rabies in wildlife species is predominately reported from farmland in central Namibia, mostly affecting kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and livestock with a likely reservoir in wildlife canids such as jackals or bat-eared foxes. The analysis confirms the presence of two independent transmission cycles in Namibia with little geographic overlap, thus allowing for a sustainable control of rabies in dogs in the NCAs.

Rabies control in North America - past, present and future.

In the first half of the 20th century, rabies in dogs affected Canada, Mexico and the United States of America (USA). However, the role of wildlife in the transmission of the rabies virus was also recognised and outbreaks affecting both wildlife and domestic animals were documented. Canine rabies has since been eliminated from Canada and the USA, and is now only found sporadically in a few southern states of Mexico. Wildlife variant rabies viruses, found throughout the continent and geographically associated with specific reservoir species, have notable public and animal health, as well as economic, impacts. Early rabies control efforts included legislated dog management strategies and wildlife population reduction, which met with varying success. In the last 30 years, programmes for the control of rabies in dogs and wildlife have benefited from an 'Integrated Management Approach', combining education, vaccination (parenteral and oral), strategic population control, responsible pet ownership and effective stewardship of natural resources, in addition to cooperation and collaboration among local, national and international stakeholders. Looking ahead, the goal of eliminating specific wildlife virus variants will be challenged by the potential range expansion of reservoir species, due to climate change and other factors, and the risk of re-introducing eliminated virus variants. To be successful, programmes must be sustained and accompanied by advances in vaccines, enhanced distribution strategies, monitoring in the field and effective modelling of disease spread. They should also be informed by robust case surveillance, phylogenetics and an increased knowledge of vector ecology.

The impact of paralytic bovine rabies transmitted by vampire bats in Latin America and the Caribbean.

The effective control of dog rabies in Latin America is justifiably seen as a major success in the struggle to limit this devastating zoonosis. However, rabies remains a problem, due to the presence of the virus in bat populations throughout the region, including vampire bats. Vampire bats obtain nutrition exclusively through consuming blood by biting mammals and birds. This makes the species a highly efficient vector of the rabies virus, responsible for sporadic outbreaks of rabies in human populations and numerous cases of rabies in livestock. This, in turn, causes economic losses to the farming industry in countries throughout the region. For over four decades, efforts to control rabies have been directed at controlling the reservoir species and vaccinating cattle. However, this approach has not eliminated rabies in livestock. A major barrier to innovation in vampire rabies control is a lack of consistent surveillance to establish the extent of the problem. This precludes any calculation of its cost to the economy or the cost of potential solutions, such as vaccinating livestock. This paper outlines the problem of livestock rabies in Latin America and considers factors that influence the economic cost of potential solutions to this continuing challenge to human and livestock health.

Field Studies Evaluating Bait Acceptance and Handling by Dogs in Navajo Nation, USA.

Mass parenteral vaccination remains the cornerstone of dog rabies control. Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) could increase vaccination coverage where free-roaming dogs represent a sizeable segment of the population at risk. ORV’s success is dependent on the acceptance of baits that release an efficacious vaccine into the oral cavity. A new egg-flavored bait was tested alongside boiled bovine intestine and a commercially available fishmeal bait using a hand-out model on the Navajo Nation, United States, during June 2016. A PVC capsule and biodegradable sachet were tested, and had no effect on bait acceptance. The intestine baits had the highest acceptance (91.9%; 95% confidence interval (CI), 83.9–96.7%), but the fishmeal (81.1%; 95% CI, 71.5–88.6%) and the egg-flavored baits (77.4%; 95% CI, 72.4–81.8%) were also well accepted, suggesting that local bait preference studies may be warranted to enhance ORV’s success in other areas where canine rabies is being managed. Based on a dyed water marker, the delivery of a placebo vaccine was best in the intestine baits (75.4%; 95% CI, 63.5–84.9%), followed by the egg-flavored (68.0%; 95% CI, 62.4–73.2%) and fishmeal (54.3%; 95% CI, 42.9–65.4%) baits. Acceptance was not influenced by the supervision or ownership, or sex, age, and body condition of the dogs. This study illustrates that a portion of a dog population may be orally vaccinated as a complement to parenteral vaccination to achieve the immune thresholds required to eliminate dog rabies.

Effect of free-roaming dogs culling on the control of canine rabies

We searched for articles on dog rabies control or urban rabies control in the databases of PubMed, Scopus and LILACS. The characteristics and results of the documents obtained were recorded. Eligibility criteria: We included original studies and reviews that have evaluated an effect of culling dogs in the transmission of RV. Data collection and evaluation: One of the authors (RCN) screened the articles found in the search based on their titles and abstracts. The data and results of the articles selected for full reading were evaluated by at least two authors. 21 articles were eligible for full reading. 20 of 21 articles conclude that free-roaming dog culling is ineffective in reducing the transmission of RV and may even have unintended consequences that worsen the problem. We believe that the available evidence indicates that the sacrifice of free-roaming dogs is not effective to control urban rabies. In addition, the various negative consequences of free-roaming dog culling reported in other parts of the world suggest that the system of urban rabies is highly complex and all its components must be taken into account during the implementation of control activities.

Epidemiological investigations of human rabies in China.

BackgroundThe epidemic of rabies showed a rising trend in China in recent years. To identify the potential factors involved in the emergence, we investigated and analyzed the status and characteristics of human rabies between 1996 and 2008. Moreover, the status of rabies infection and vaccination in dogs, and prophylaxis of humans after rabies exposure were analyzed.MethodsHuman rabies data in China between 1996 and 2008 collected from the annual reports of Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC) were analyzed. To investigate the status of dogs and postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) of humans, brain specimens of domestic dogs were collected and detected, and the demographic details, exposure status and PEP of rabies patients were obtained in 2005 and 2006 in Guangxi, Hunan and Guizhou provinces.ResultsThe results showed 19,806 human rabies cases were reported in China from 1996 to 2008, with an average of 1,524 cases each year, and the incidence almost was rising rapidly, with the peak in 2007 (3,300 cases). It was notable that nearly 50% of the total rabies cases nationwide were reported in Guangxi, Hunan and Guizhou provinces. In these three provinces, the rabies infection rate in dogs was 2.3%, and 60% investigated cities had a dog vaccination rate of below 70%; among the 315 recorded human cases, 66.3% did not receive any PEP at all, 27.6% received inadequate PEP, and only 6.0% received a full regime of PEP.ConclusionsIn recent years, rabies is reemerging and becoming a major public-health problem in China. Our analysis showed that unsuccessful control of dog rabies and inadequate PEP of patients were the main factors leading to the high incidence of human rabies in China, then there are following suggestions: (1) Strict control of free-ranging dogs and mandatory rabies vaccination should be enforced. (2)Establishing national animal rabies surveillance network is imperative. (3) PEP should be decided to initiate or withhold according to postmortem diagnosis of the biting animal. (4) The cost of PEP should be decreased or free, especially in rural areas. (5)Education of the public and health care staff should be enhanced.

Phylogenetic analysis of nucleoprotein gene of dog rabies virus isolates from Southern India

India like several other South East Asian and African countries continues to face the public health and economic problems associated with the disease. Our objective was to perform a limited sequence analysis of a portion of nucleoprotein gene of 22 rabies virus isolates obtained from domestic animals in Southern India during 2004–2005. These isolates were compared with rabies virus isolates originating from Asia, Europe, Africa and North America. The phylogenetic analysis showed that RV isolates in Southern India belong to genotype 1. They were similar to one another forming a single major genetic cluster not ordered by geography or species of origin. However, they were dissimilar to RV isolates in Northern India and in other parts of the world. The data indicated that dog rabies virus variants are the major circulating viruses and control of dog rabies would result in overall reduction in the burden and incidence of rabies in India.

Socioeconomic Factors Associated With Non-Vaccination Of Dogs Against Rabies In Ibadan, Nigeria

Rabies is a zoonotic viral disease that affects human, domestic and wild animals. It is an acute, highly contagious and fatal disease caused by a bullet – shaped, enveloped RNA virus 180-75nm known as Lyssavirus type 1 and marked by a1mg and variable incubation period (Oboegbulem,. 1994). It is transmitted to animals and humans through close contact with saliva from infected animals. Once symptoms of the disease develop, rabies is fatal to both animals and humans (WHO, 200l). In Nigeria where dog bites continue to be the main mode of transmission of the disease to man, it remains a serious public health hazard. (Thorne, 1954; Ezeokoli et al. 1984; Ikede and Adeyemi, 1984). Reliable data on rabies are scarce in many areas of the globe, making it difficult to assess its full impact on human and animal health (WHO 2001). Since dog has been established as the predominant vector of rabies in Nigeria, the most logical and cost – effective approach to rabies control is elimination of stray and owner less dogs combined with a programme of single mass immunization in the shortest possible time, at least 80% of the entire dog population (WHO, 2001). The retrospective dog rabies vaccination evaluated at Ibadan carried out by Adeyemi (2000) showed that there is low response of dog owners to routine control of dog rabies by immunization. Effective, practicable and acceptable control strategy can only be put in place after the socio-economic facts associated with dog owners in each community have been studied. This paper reports the socioeconomic factors associated with Non-vaccination of dogs in Ibadan city, Nigeria. Keywords: Owned-dogs, anti-rabies vaccination, zoonosis, Ibadan cityNigerian Veterinary Journal Vol. 28 (3) 2007 pp. 59-63

Veterinary responsibility in management of ‘the incurable wound’

GIVEN its unmatched case fatality rate, global distribution, considerable health and agricultural burden, and horrible clinical manifestations, rabies remains the most significant viral zoonosis at large in the 21st century....

Acceptability of local made baits for oral vaccination of dogs against rabies in the Philippines.

BackgroundIn the Philippines, traditional mass dog vaccination campaigns have only achieved limited and transient success in dog rabies control, mainly because a large segment of the dog population is not accessible for traditional parenteral vaccination. Oral vaccination of dogs has been suggested as a supplementary method to increase the overall vaccination coverage of the dog populations involved. For this purpose, it is necessary to identify a suitable bait that is readily accepted by local dogs and that can be prepared without high costs.Materials and MethodsDuring a field study, dog bait-acceptance of several baits, made from inexpensive local available material, was examined in the Philippines.ResultsOf three baits tested, chickenneck, intestine, and boiled-intestine, the latter, made from boiled sections of the larger intestine of domestic pigs, had the highest acceptance-rate: none of the dogs that were offered a bait refused it, except for two dogs that ran away when approached.Other derivatives of the boiled-intestine bait were also accepted by almost all dogs. These baits, using the serosa of the smaller intestine as bait matrix were filled with fish, beef or pork scraps. However, preparation-time was longer and the costs of bait material were higher than those for the boiled-intestine bait (0.01 U$).ConclusionThe boiled-intestine bait can be produced at very low costs using locally available material and is extremely well accepted by local dogs, hence, providing a realistic opportunity to incorporate oral vaccination of dogs in the national rabies programme of the Philippines.