Dogs In Japan Research Articles

Prevalence of Immunity Presumed Using Rabies Vaccination History and Household Factors Associated with Vaccination Status among Domestic Dogs in Japan

Rabies was eliminated in Japan over 50 years ago; however, the recent increase in the movement of humans and animals across the world highlights the potential threat of disease reentry into the country. The immune status against rabies among the dog population in Japan is not well known; thus, the purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of dogs with effective immunity from the vaccination history using a web-based survey. We found that 76.9% (95% confidence interval, 75.8-78.1) of dogs in this study population belonged to the population in which 90% were assumed to have the internationally accepted antibody titer. We showed that dogs taken less frequently for walks were less likely to be vaccinated. Additionally, the frequency of encounters with other dogs during walks and the number of individuals in households were associated with vaccination history. To our knowledge, this study is the first report estimating the prevalence of dogs in Japan with effective immunity against rabies. Further, we identified the population with low vaccination coverage as well as the heterogeneous characteristics of vaccination history among the dog population. These findings contribute to the implementation of an efficient strategy for improving the overall vaccination coverage in Japan and the development of a quantitative risk assessment of rabies.

Molecular Epidemiological Survey of the <i>Babesia gibsoni cytochrome b</i> Gene in Western Japan

In this study, we conducted a survey of the cytochrome b (cytb) gene of Babesia gibsoni (B. gibsoni) isolated from clinical cases to determine the prevalence of potential atovaquone (ATV)-resistant variants. Ninety-two blood samples were collected from naturally B. gibsoni infected dogs. The cytb nucleotide sequence was determined by direct sequencing. Twelve non-synonymous amino acid substitutions were identified in cytb. The principal ATV-resistant substitution, M121I, was detected in three cases. This survey determined that potentially ATV-resistant B. gibsoni strains are present in dogs in Japan.

Rapid genotyping assays for the 4–base pair deletion of canine MDR1/ABCB1 gene and low frequency of the mutant allele in Border Collie dogs

P-glycoprotein, encoded by the MDR1 or ABCB1 gene, is an integral component of the blood-brain barrier as an efflux pump for xenobiotics crucial in limiting drug uptake into the central nervous system. Dogs homozygous for a 4-base pair deletion of the canine MDR1 gene show altered expression or function of P-glycoprotein, resulting in neurotoxicosis after administration of the substrate drugs. In the present study, the usefulness of microchip electrophoresis for genotyping assays detecting this deletion mutation was evaluated. Mutagenically separated polymerase chain reaction (MS-PCR) and real-time PCR assays were newly developed and evaluated. Furthermore, a genotyping survey was carried out in a population of Border Collies dogs in Japan to determine the allele frequency in this breed. Microchip electrophoresis showed advantages in detection sensitivity and time saving over other modes of electrophoresis. The MS-PCR assay clearly discriminated all genotypes. Real-time PCR assay was most suitable for a large-scale survey due to its high throughput and rapidity. The genotyping survey demonstrated that the carrier and mutant allele frequencies were 0.49% and 0.25%, respectively, suggesting that the mutant allele frequency in Border Collies is markedly low compared to that in the susceptible dog breeds such as rough and smooth Collies.

Molecular Detection of Human Periodontal Pathogens in Oral Swab Specimens from Dogs in Japan

Periodontal diseases are known to be major diseases in humans, and are also common in dogs. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the distribution of periodontitis-related bacterial species using oral swab specimens collected from 26 pet dogs. The distribution of an animal gingival organism Porphyromonas gulae, in addition to 10 human periodontitis-related bacterial species, including Porphyromonas gingivalis, Treponema denticola, Tannerella forsythia, Capnocytophaga ochracea, Capnocytophaga sputigena, Prevotella intermedia, Prevotella nigrescens, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Campylobacter rectus, and Eikenella corrodens, were evaluated by polymerase chain reaction with species-specific sets of primers. Porphyromonas gulae, Tannerella forsythia and Campylobacter rectus were detected in almost all dogs analyzed, all of which should be regarded as common members of oral flora in dogs. Then, isolation and identification of the Porphyromonas species in swab specimens were performed. There were 35 strains isolated from 22 dogs, and broad-range polymerase chain reaction and sequencing methods revealed that approximately 70% of them were Porphyromonas gulae. In contrast, the frequency of Porphyromonas gingivalis was extremely low. These findings indicate the presence of specific periodontitis-related pathogens in pet dogs, especially Porphyromonas gulae.

Age-specific plasma biochemistry reference ranges in <1 year old dogs in Japan

The purpose of this study was to investigate and propose possible reference intervals of plasma biochemical analytes in young dogs (<12 months old) in Japan, using 896 canine plasma samples, collected from an array of veterinary clinics throughout the greater Tokyo metropolis area in Japan. The following biochemical parameters were assessed: albumin (ALB), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), amylase, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine (CRE), glucose, lipase, total cholesterol (T-Cho), and total protein (TP) were evaluated. Multivariate linear regression analysis indicated that partitioning according to age or gender may be necessary for some plasma analytes. Age appeared to significantly affect ALB, ALT, ALP, BUN, Glucose, Lipase, and Total Protein (P= <0.001, <0.001, <0.001, 0.013, <0.001, 0.025, and <0.001, respectively). On the other hand, gender significantly influenced ALP, Amylase, Lipase, and T-Cho levels (P=0.017, <0.001, <0.001, and <0.001, respectively) whereas it may be borderline significant with ALT (P=0.072).

Giardia and other intestinal parasites in dogs from veterinary clinics in Japan

The present study is the first report that describes the national survey of intestinal parasites in private household dogs brought to veterinary clinics in Japan. A total of 2,365 fresh feces were collected. Giardia-specific coproantigen was examined by ELISA kit (SNAP(®) Giardia, IDEXX Laboratories, Inc.; Maine, USA). Other intestinal parasites were determined microscopically using the formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation technique. According to age categories, Giardia duodenalis, Cystoisospora spp., Toxocara canis, Toxascaris leonina, and Strongyloides spp., at ≦6-months-old showed significantly (P < 0.0001, P < 0.001 or P < 0.01, respectively) higher prevalence compared to >6 months old (31.5% vs. 2.3%, 9.1% vs. 0.05%, 1.8% vs. 0.4%, 1.1% vs. 0%, and 1.1% vs. 0.05%, respectively). In clinical categories, prevalences of G. duodenalis (14.8%) and Cystoisospora spp. (4.7%) in symptomatic dogs were significantly (P < 0.05, respectively) higher than those in asymptomatic ones (7.9% and 1.6%, respectively). G. duodenalis and Cystoisospora spp. were dominant parasites in private household dogs in Japan, especially ≦6-month-old dogs.

Development of a guide-dog robot: human–robot interface considering walking conditions for a visually handicapped person

The repletion rate of guide dogs for visually handicapped persons is roughly 10% nationwide. The reasons for this low rate are the long training period and the expense for obtaining a guide dog in Japan. Motivated by these two reasons, we are developing guide-dog robots. The major objective is to develop an intelligent human–robot interface. This paper describes two novel interface algorithms and strategy to guide visually handicapped person. We developed new leading edge searching method, which uses a single laser range finder (LRF) developed to find the center of the corridor in an indoor environment. We also developed a new twin cluster trace method that can recognize the led-person’s walking conditions measured by the LRF. The algorithm allows the guide-dog robot to accurately estimate and anticipate the led-person’s next move. We experimentally verified these algorithms. The results show that the algorithms are reliable enough to enable the guide-dog robot and the led-person to maneuver in a complex corridor environment.

Assessment of the Factorial Structures of the C-BARQ in Japan

In order to introduce the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ), which is a standardized system for evaluating the behavioral traits of dogs, to Japan, where the environment with respect to dog ownership is thought to differ from those of the United States and Europe, we compared demographic information on dogs in the United States and Japan and examined whether similar factors could be extracted from both countries using questionnaire items of the C-BARQ. The C-BARQ was completed by 11,410, and 734 dog owners respectively in the United States and Japan, and some demographic differences were found, such as breed and neuter status. Data from completed questionnaires were subjected to factor analysis, and the resulting factors were tested for reliability. In the United States, factor analysis yielded 11 factors from 63 items that accounted for 52.9% of the common variance. In Japan, 15 factors were extracted, and these accounted for 57.0% of the common variance. The present factors for the United States were almost identical to the factors identified in a previous study, and similar factors were extracted in both countries. Therefore, the C-BARQ can function effectively as a fundamental behavioral evaluation system for dogs in Japan.

家庭どうぶつ医療における保険金支払いデータの活用

Anicom, the leading pet insurer in Japan started its operation 12 years ago, and currently holds almost 400,000 pet insurance policies in force. Insurance claim data could provide epidemiological information. We tried to investigate the prevalence of disease with analysis of the above data. All insurance claim data of 217,150 dogs (male 115,192 and female101,958) contracted with Anicom pet insurance from April 1 2008 to March 31 2009 were used for the research. The high incidence of insured dogs in Japan is 20.9% in Ear Diseases, 19.7% in Dermatologic Diseases, and 15.6%in Gastrointestinal Diseases. The incidence of foreign body ingestion was significantly different; 3.7% in puppies under one year of age, 2.2% in 1 year old, and under 1.4% in 3-10 years old. It is considered that the pet insurance data would provide the tendency of disease in dogs. Further, it will be required to develop effective sampling methods for more valuable data to research on the better treatments and prevention of animal diseases.

Imported Leishmaniasis in Dogs, US Military Bases, Japan

To the Editor: Leishmaniasis is found in canids in ≈50 of the 88 countries where leishmaniases are found in humans (1). In Japan, 2 cases of imported canine leishmaniasis have been documented in dogs from Spain (2,3). We report 2 cases of leishmaniasis in dogs in which dermatitis developed mainly on the face. Leishmaniasis was diagnosed from results of a serologic rk39 test, followed by PCR of skin lesion specimens for the Leishmania spp.–specific small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene. Because the dogs had lived on a US military base in Sicily, Italy, for 3 years before their owners were transfered to Japan, the animals were likely infected with L. infantum in Italy. Animal 1 was a 6-year-old female dog that had lived in Sicily for 3 years, since 2003, and had been brought to Japan in September 2006. While she lived in Italy, she had exhibited alopecic, pruritic, and crusty skin lesions, mainly around the face and on the forearms and hind legs. In November 2006, the dog was brought to the US Army Veterinary Command’s Zama Veterinary Treatment Facility with dermatitis (Figure A1, panel A) and additional signs of kidney failure. A serum specimen was positive by the rk39 dipstick test for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis (Kalazar Detect; InBios, Seattle, WA, USA). A skin punch biopsy specimen was obtained for cultures and PCR for the parasites in December 2006. Cultures of 4 skin specimens were all negative, probably because of cool transportation of the samples for 1.5 days before the cultures were started. The dog’s condition was treated with ketoconazole and then allopurinol. The skin conditions initially improved, but the lesions did not completely resolve (Figure A1, panels B–D). In May 2008, the dog was humanely killed because of central vestibular disease with unknown cause. A necropsy was not performed. Animal 2 was a 12-year-old male dog that had also lived in Sicily for 3 years since 2000, and was brought to Yokosuka Base in Japan in 2003. In January 2004, the dog was positive for visceral leishmaniasis by the rk39 test; no particular clinical signs were observed. In March 2007, the dog was referred to Zama Veterinary Treatment Facility with pruritic alopecia on the dorsum and head, and a skin punch biopsy specimen was obtained for histopathologic evaluation. The presence of amastigotes of Leishmania species within areas of dermal inflammation was confirmed at the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (Washington, DC, USA). In April 2007, a second skin punch biopsy specimen was obtained for PCR. PCR was performed for the Leishmania-specific SSU rRNA gene (4). For primary PCR, primers R221 (5′-GGTTCCTTTCCTGATTTACG-3′) and R332 (5′-GGCCGGTAAAGGCCGAATAG-3′) were used. For nested PCR, primers R223 (5′-TCCCATCGCAACCTCGGTT-3′) and R333 (5′-AAAGCGGGCGCGGTGCTG-3′) were used. In the primary reaction, the expected PCR products of ≈603 bp were detected in 2 of 4 skin DNA specimens from patient 1 and 1 of 5 skin DNA specimens from patient 2 (Figure, panel A, lanes 2, 3, 9). In the nested reaction, the expected PCR products of ≈359 bp were seen in all 4 specimens from patient 1 and in 4 of 5 specimens from patient 2 (Figure, panel B, lanes 1–4, and 5, 6, 8, 9); some bands were faint. The nucleotide sequences (288 bp) of the nested PCR product of patient 1 were 100% identical to those of patient 2 and sequences of the SSU rRNA gene of L. infantum (IPT1 strain, used as a positive control), L. infantum ({type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:M81429,term_id:175059,term_text:M81429}}M81429), L. donovani ({type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:M80295,term_id:175058,term_text:M80295}}M80295), and L. chagasi ({type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:M81430,term_id:175057,term_text:M81430}}M81430). Global warming, which causes changes in the distribution of the sand fly vectors, and human-produced risk factors, such as travel, migration, and urbanization, may increase the incidence of leishmaniasis (5). Military mobility and operations are also a major risk factor for leishmaniasis in humans and canids (6). In Japan, of >300 kala-azar (visceral leishmaniasis) patients reported, 218 were soldiers who returned from the People’s Republic of China before and after World War II (7). In the present study, 2 dogs infected with L. infantum had been brought to Japan from Italy by US military families. Dog-to-dog transmission by direct contact with contaminated blood through biting may explain the recent outbreaks of leishmaniasis in foxhounds in North America (8). In Japan, although no sandfly species that could transmit leishmania have been reported (7), direct dog-to-dog transmission of leishmaniasis can occur. Babesia gibsoni infection is prevalent among fighting dogs in Japan, likely because of the transmission of infected erythrocytes through biting (9). Greater sharing of information and of diagnostic procedures is required in Japan because few medical and veterinary practitioners have experience with leishmaniasis patients. Figure PCR amplification of the Leishmania spp.–specific small subunit rRNA gene from skin biopsy specimens from infected dogs, Japan. DNA samples (100–200 ng) were subjected to primary PCR (A), followed by nested PCR (B). Lanes 1–4, ...

Phylogenetic identification of Cystoisospora spp. from dogs, cats, and raccoon dogs in Japan

Cystoisospora spp. from feces in dogs, cats, and raccoon dogs were isolated, sequenced at the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene locus and compared to other Cystoisospora spp. Cystoisospora oocysts from dogs and raccoon dogs were morphologically similar with those of C. ohioensis, and cat isolates were similar with those of C. felis. The sequences from dogs and raccoon dogs, and cats have a homology with C. ohioensis and C. felis, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis of the DNA sequences showed that the dog and raccoon dog isolates were nested in a clade with other Cystoisospora spp. including C. ohioensis, C. belli, and C. orlovi. The cat isolate formed a sister group with C. felis that was a separate clade from the dog and raccoon dog group. We report sequence variation in these Cystoisospora sequences and have identified raccoon dogs as another carnivore host for Cystoisospora spp. infecting dogs.

Inflammatory Myopathy with Severe Tongue Atrophy in Pembroke Welsh Corgi Dogs

A disease characterized by tongue and facial muscle atrophy has been recognized sporadically among Pembroke Welsh Corgi (PWC) dogs in Japan. The present study describes the pathologic findings of this canine syndrome. Histopathologic examinations were performed in 2 dogs, including a case of muscular biopsy. Identification and characterization of autoantibodies were attempted by fluorescent antibody test (FAT) and Western blot (WB) by using sera from 7 PWC dogs with typical clinical features, 6 PWC dogs with other clinical signs, and 2 from other breeds with polymyositis. Clinically, the 7 affected PWC dogs exhibited dysphagia with severe tongue atrophy, facial muscular atrophy, and occasional walking difficulty. Histopathologic examinations of the 2 dogs with clinical symptoms revealed moderate to severe inflammatory lesions characterized by lymphohistiocytic infiltration and muscular atrophy in the tongue and/or femoral muscles. The tongue lesions were very severe and accompanied by diffuse fatty infiltration. There were no major lesions in the nervous tissues examined. By FAT, an autoantibody against the cross striation of skeletal muscle was detected in sera from 5 affected PWC dogs. By using WB analysis, the autoantibodies recognized a 42-kDa molecule in striated muscle but not in the nervous tissues. All of the findings indicated that the unique disease of PWC dogs might be generalized inflammatory myopathy, whereas the detailed etiology concerning the dominant involvement of tongue muscles and the role of the autoantibody in the canine disease remain to be clarified.

Evaluation of Rickettsia japonica Pathogenesis and Reservoir Potential in Dogs by Experimental Inoculation and Epidemiologic Survey

Rickettsia japonica pathogenesis and reservoir potential in dogs were evaluated by both experimental inoculation and epidemiologic survey. In the experimental inoculation study, dogs 1 and 2 were pretreated with an immunosuppressive dose of cyclosporine 14 days before inoculation and became ill after exposure to R. japonica. Dogs exhibited clinical signs, including fever, anorexia, depression, and decreased water consumption, between 36 and 96 h after inoculation, but these signs disappeared spontaneously by 5 days after inoculation. Dogs 3 and 4 were not pretreated with cyclosporine, and no clinical signs were detected in them throughout the 14-day observation period. The control dog was clinically normal and had a normal rectal temperature throughout the study period. We attempted to detect rickettsial DNA from peripheral blood and aspiration samples from kidney and spleen by nested PCR, but all samples examined were negative. The control dog lacked detectable titers to R. japonica antigen on day 14, while positive antibodies to R. japonica were detected in all four experimentally infected dogs, with titers of 1:160 to 1:80. In the epidemiologic survey, 24 (1.8%) of the 1,363 dogs examined throughout Japan had antibodies against R. japonica, with titers of 1:40 or more. However, we observed neither clinical signs at the time of sample collection nor nested PCR results indicative of rickettsial infection in these dogs. In conclusion, dogs in Japan can be exposed to R. japonica, and infected dogs with immunosuppressive conditions can temporarily develop clinical symptoms, including fever, anorexia, depression, and decreased water consumption.

Serological Survey of Encephalitozoon cuniculi Infection in Japanese Dogs

Antibodies to Encephalitozoon cuniculi were examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using E. cuniculi PTP2 recombinant protein and by Western blot analysis on a total of 472 dog serum samples that had been collected in Japan. Of these samples, 21.8% (103/472) had antibodies against E. cuniculi. Each of 5 serum samples that showed high (>1.0) or low (<0.1) OD value was selected randomly and further examined by Western blot using E. cuniculi-native antigens. All samples with high OD values reacted with specific E. cuniculi proteins, including an antigen of approximately 35 kDa corresponding with PTP2; sera with low OD values did not recognize this E. cuniculi band. This study is the first to demonstrate the prevalence of E. cuniculi infection in dogs in Japan.

HumanBrucella canisInfections Diagnosed by Blood Culture

Human<i>Brucella canis</i>Infections Diagnosed by Blood Culture

Detection and genotyping of canine coronavirus RNA in diarrheic dogs in Japan

To clarify the prevalence of canine coronavirus (CCoV) infection in Japan, faecal samples from 109 dogs with diarrhoea were examined for CCoV RNA together with canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) DNA. The detection rates of CCoV and CPV-2 for dogs aged less than 1 year were 66.3% and 43.8%, while those for dogs aged 1 year or older were 6.9% and 10.3%, respectively, which were significantly different ( p < 0.0001 and p = 0.0003, respectively), indicating not CPV-2 but CCoV is an important diarrhoea-causing organism in juvenile dogs. Among the CCoV-positive dogs, 65.5% and 72.7% showed to be positive for CCoV types I and II, respectively, and simultaneous detection rate of both types was high at 40.0%. Furthermore, transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV)-like CCoV RNA was detected from 8 dogs. These findings indicate that CCoV type I and TGEV-like CCoV are already circulating in Japan, though no reports have been presented to date.

The Asia 2 specific signal peptide region and other domains in fusion protein genes characterized Asia 1 and Asia 2 canine distemper viruses

BackgroundAlthough the presence of Asia 2 group of canine distemper virus (CDV) was known by the sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of hemagglutinin (H) gene, the fusion (F) protein gene sequence of Asia 2 group had not been identified. So, the sequence analysis of F gene was carried out to elucidate the genotypic varaitons among Asian isolates.ResultsThe phylogenetic analysis of F and H gene sequences from fourteen CDV isolates obtained from diseased dogs in Japan and Thailand indicated that the F genes had a new initiation codon and extra 27 nucleotides upstream of the usual open reading frame (ORF) and the F proteins had extra 9 amino acids at the N-terminal position only in Asia 2 isolates. On the contrary, the Asia 1 isolates had three extra putative N-glycosylation sites (two sites in the signal peptide region and one site in the F1 region) except for two strains of Th12 and Ac96I (two sites in signal peptide region) adding to four putative N-glycosylation sites that were conserved among all Asian isolates and Onderstepoort strain. In addition to this difference in N-glycosylation sites, the signal peptide region had a great diversity between Asia 1 and Asia 2 isolates. Also, characteristic amino acids were detected for some strains.ConclusionAsia 2 isolates were distinguished from other CDV lineages by the extra 27 nucleotide sequence. The signal peptide region of F gene gives a remarkable differentiation between Asia 1 and Asia 2 isolates. Strains Th12 and Ac96I were differentiated from other Asia 1 strains by the F protein glycosylation sites.

Echinococcus multilocularisInfection in Pet Dogs in Japan

A survey of Echinococcus multilocularis infections in pet dogs in Japan from 1997 to 2007 was conducted by testing for coproantigen reactivity, fecal taeniid eggs, and egg DNA. In Hokkaido, the only island where E. multilocularis is endemic in Japan, 18 of 4768 dogs (0.4%) excreted taeniid eggs that were positive for E. multilocularis DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Most of the dogs testing positive for egg DNA were kept free-range, but three dogs had been kept inside their owners' houses. In addition, 15 dogs were suspected to be infected based on the results of a coproantigen test. One dog, which was transported from Hokkaido to Honshu, the main island of Japan, was excreting taeniid eggs that were positive for E. multilocularis DNA by PCR. These results suggest the importance of proper pet management in disease prevention, even for dogs kept indoors, and they point out a possible means by which the parasite may be introduced into non-endemic areas through transport of infected dogs.

Do dogs follow human social cues? A replication with family dogs in Japan

According to the experimental studies conducted by European and American researchers, domestic dogs are good performers in choosing a container based on gestures provided by humans. Some researchers have argued that this ability is a product of domestication. We investigated whether family dogs in Japan can use social cues to locate food hidden in one of two small containers (pots). The tested cues were (1) pointing to the target pot with the contralateral hand (i.e., cross-body pointing), (2) turning the head to the target pot, and (3) kneeling behind the target pot (i.e., local enhancement). The performance was poor in the present study compared with the previous studies conduced in European/American countries. As family dogs are well controlled in these countries compared to those in Japan, our data seem to challenge the domestication hypothesis and support the claim that social skill learning plays a critical role in this task.

Nationwide Survey of Leptospira Antibodies in Dogs in Japan: Results from Microscopic Agglutination Test and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay

Leptospirosis is an infectious disease caused by Leptospira interrogans sensu lato and is common in both humans and animals. In the present study, serum samples were collected from 801 dogs across all 47 prefectures in Japan, and evaluated with a microscopic agglutination test (MAT), using 5 major L. interrogans serovars (Icterohaemorrhagiae, Canicola, Autumnalis, Hebdomadis, and Australis) as antigens, and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using recombinant OmpL1 protein as the antigen. Across all dogs tested, 217 (27.0%) and 29 (3.6%) were MAT- and ELISA-positive, respectively. However, evidence strongly suggests that MAT also detected antibodies produced by vaccination. Of 243 dogs never inoculated with any canine vaccine, 41 (16.9%) from 23 prefectures were MAT and/or ELISA positive. The most commonly detected serovar was Icterohaemorrhagiae (22 dogs, 19 prefectures). Our results suggest that there are dogs with subclinical Leptospira infection throughout Japan. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first nationwide survey of Leptospira infection in dogs, and the findings are relevant not only for clinical veterinary medicine but also for public health.