Dodecyl Amine Research Articles

Flotation of coarse particles by hydrodynamic cavitation generated in the presence of conventional reagents

Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) (typically used to generate submicron bubbles) are frequently examined to improve froth flotation efficiency of ultrafine particles (−38 µm); however, the study of their effects on flotation parameters during the process of coarse particles (+100 µm) was not significantly explored. The main aim of this investigation is to discover the impacts of HC on effective flotation variables and flotation recovery of coarse particles (FRCP). Various surfactants (frothers: Methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC) and pine oil (PO), and dodecyl amine (DDA)) were used for the HC conditions. For comparison purposes, two series of flotation experiments in the absence and presence of HC were conducted by using coarse pure quartz particles (−425 + 106 µm). Variable importance measurements (VIMs) of random forest were applied to compare and assess impacts of flotation parameters (particle size, flotation conventional bubble (CB) size, impeller speed, and air flow rate) on FRCP in the absence and presence of HC. Outputs of VIMs indicated that the negative effect of particle size on FRCP was decreased and the capability of CB for floating coarse particles was improved in the presence of HC. Moreover, VIM results showed that in the presence of HC, the highest FRCP can be achieved when turbulent is lower. Generally, variations in the airflow rate had negligible impacts on FRCP. Flotation experiments suggested that HC in the presence of the collector can overcome the absence of frothers in a flotation system. These results can be used for enhancement of selective separation via froth flotation.

Photodegradation of methylene blue under direct sunbeams by synthesized anatase titania nanoparticles

Surfactant-assisted titania nanoparticles have been successfully synthesized using an inorganic salt of titanium by controlled hydrolysis method. Anionic (Sodium dodecyl sulfate), nonionic (Brij C10) and cationic (Dodecyl amine) surfactants have been used to synthesize the titania nanoparticles. The XRD patterns of the 500 °C annealed nanoparticles exhibit technologically important anatase phase. Anatase to rutile transformation is observed for Ti-D-650 nanoparticles at lower temperature. It has been observed that the Ti-S-900 nanoparticles retained to the anatase phase at higher temperature up to 900 °C. The Brij C10 assisted nanoparticles (Ti-B-500) exhibited high surface area and lower crystallite size compared to other nanoparticles. In addition, Ti-B-500 samples exhibited wormlike mesopores structure. XPS study confirmed the presence of sulphur in Ti-B-500 nanoparticles, which creates an O–S mixed environment into the lattice. The nanoparticles also showed a red shift in the UV-DRS study with a lower band gap (indirect) energy about 3.02 eV. Impedance spectrum of the Ti-B-500 nanoparticles confirmed the enhanced electron–hole separation rate involved in the photodegradation process. Photodegradation rate of methylene blue [2 × $$10^{ - 5}$$ (M)] with Ti-B-500 nanoparticles under direct sunbeams has been observed to be higher compared to other surfactant-assisted nanoparticles. The rate of photodegradation is found to be best at pH = 6.7 with a rate of 0.0864 $${ \hbox{min} }^{ - 1}$$ and the catalyst showed best reusability even after five cycles of experiment.

Effect of concentration of DOC loaded TiO2 nanotubes on the corrosion behavior of smart coatings

The present work focuses on synthesis and characterization of novel polymeric based smart coatings containing various amount of titania nanotubes (TiO2) encapsulated with dodecylamine (DOC). The novelty of the current research work resides on the fact that the encapsulation of TiO2 nanotubes with DOC and its inhibition effect in polymeric smart coatings have not been previously reported. Towards this direction, TiO2 nanotubes with an average size of ⁓10–15 nm (as confirmed by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis) were synthesized through a hydrothermal process and were then impregnated with DOC. Various contents of the encapsulated TiO2 nanotubes (1, 3 and 5 wt%) were thoroughly dispersed into the epoxy matrix and the resulting composites were then applied on a cleaned steel substrate using doctor blade technique to develop smart coatings. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis confirms the impregnation of TiO2 nanotubes with DOC. The encapsulated amount of DOC in TiO2 nanotubes was estimated by the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The UV–vis spectroscopy study demonstrates time dependent self-release of encapsulated DOC from the TiO2 nanotubes in response to pH change of the corrosive medium. TGA and FTIR analyses also indicate that different amounts of encapsulated TiO2 nanotubes dispersed into smart coatings do not degrade their structural and thermal properties. Moreover, a decrease in the corrosion rate of smart coatings with increasing amount of encapsulated TiO2 nanotubes in the EIS analysis confirms their superior anticorrosive performance. This improvement in corrosion resistance can be attributed to the efficient and high amount of DOC released from the encapsulated TiO2 nanotubes. A decent improvement of corrosion resistance make these smart coatings attractive for industrial applications.

The Stefan-Reynolds Model and the Modified Stefan-Reynolds Model for Studying Bubble-Particle Attachment Interactions in the Context of Flotation.

Bubble-particle attachment is the key step for successful flotation. Modeling of attachment interactions between air bubbles and particles after their collision can be analyzed using the Stefan-Reynolds model (immobile bubble surfaces) and the modified Stefan-Reynolds model (mobile bubble surfaces). However, these models have been rarely used, and the limitations of these models have not yet been reported. The objective of this paper is to address this matter under a wide range of experimental flotation conditions. It was found that the Stefan-Reynolds model can be used to determine the real bubble-particle hydrophobic constants at low surfactant concentrations. However, at high surfactant concentrations, the real bubble-particle hydrophobic constants cannot be determined, but the fictive bubble-particle hydrophobic constants can be obtained by using the linear extrapolation method. The same analysis was also performed using the modified Stefan-Reynolds model. The results showed that the attachment of quartz particles to air bubbles in the presence of dodecyl amine hydrochloride is accelerated due to the mobility of the air-water interface. This paper demonstrated that the limitations of the Stefan-Reynolds model and the modified Stefan-Reynolds model to analyze the bubble-particle attachment interactions can be addressed by introducing the fictive bubble-particle hydrophobic constants.

Interfacial Water Features at Air-Water Interfaces as Influenced by Charged Surfactants.

The features of interfacial water at air-water interfaces of anionic sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and cationic dodecyl amine hydrochloride (DDA) solutions were examined by combining sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy measurements and molecular dynamics simulations (MDS). The SFG spectra revealed that interfacial water molecules for SDS solutions were highly ordered compared with those for DDA solutions. To elucidate this observation, in addition to agreement with the literature in regards to the interfacial electric field at the interfaces, we investigated the features of interfacial water molecules with respect to their network and their interaction with surfactant head groups. Our simulation analysis results revealed a higher number density, more strongly connected hydrogen bonding, and more orderly oriented interfacial water molecules at the interface of the SDS solutions as compared to the DDA solutions. The goal of this research is to identify significant features of interfacial water for our improved understanding of such interfacial phenomena.

Effect of ultrasound on bubble-particle interaction in quartz-amine flotation system

In this study, the effect of ultrasound (US) on the quartz-amine flotation system was investigated in detail by considering various surface chemistry techniques. The effect of ultrasound on particle size, shape factor, and surface roughness were characterized by using Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area measurements and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses. The contact angle and bubble-particle attachment time, as well as adsorption density measurements was carried out to evaluate the effect of ultrasound on quartz surface wetting ability. In addition, atomic force microscopy (AFM) analyses were conducted, and finally micro-flotation studies were performed. As a result, it was found that the micro-flotation recovery at 2 × 10−5 M dodecyl amine hydrochloride (DAH) concentration increased from 45.45% to 63.64% with 30 W ultrasonic application at conditioning step. However, the micro-flotation recovery decreased to 37.50% when the ultrasonic power increased to 150 W. The results showed some effect of ultrasound on particle size, particle shape, and surface roughness in some extent. The increase in the contact angle and the decrease in the bubble-particle attachment time were observed. A slightly high adsorption density was measured. All these show a positive effect of ultrasound on quartz flotation with amine as a collector.

Hydrogen titanates acting as inhibitor reservoirs and application in epoxy coatings

Two hydrogen titanate matrices, H2Ti4O9 (T1) and HxTi2-x/4□x/4O4 (T2), were prepared as the inhibitor reservoirs. In ethanol solutions the inhibitive molecules, dodecylamine (DA) and 2-aminomethyl benzimidazole (ABI), can be stored in the interlayer spaces of the two matrices, respectively, and in aqueous media they are extracted to function as effective inhibitors. In comparison to DA into T1, the intercalation of ABI into T2 is relatively more difficult and the extraction of ABI in aqueous media is also incomplete. The epoxy coatings containing the inhibitor-modified titanate matrices exhibit good self-repairing performance. Electrochemical tests show that the coating containing ABI-modified titanates works better in self-repairing performance than that containing DA-modified titanates.

Research on the reverse flotation of kaolinite from fine coal on basis of adsorption behavior

ABSTRACTThe strong hydrophilic properties of both sub-bituminous coal and kaolinite make it difficult to separate by direct flotation. In this paper, the removal of kaolinite from fine sub-bituminous coal was investigated by reverse flotation tests using N, N-dimethyl dodecyl amine (DRN12) as a kaolinite collector. In addition, the adsorption behavior of DRN12 on coal and kaolinite surfaces was also studied to explore its interaction mechanism The experimental results showed that the beneficiation of kaolinite from the raw coal was effective only in the acid pulp with DRN12 less than 1.5kg/t. Moreover, in acid solutions, DRN12 preferentially adsorbs on kaolinite surface by electrostatic force, and the adsorption capacity of DRN12 on kaolinite surface was much higher than on coal, which caused an increase of kaolinite hydrophobicity and floatability.

Effects of BaCl2 on K-feldspar flotation using dodecyl amine chloride under natural pH

The effects of BaCl2 on the flotation of K-feldspar using dodecyl amine chloride as the collector under natural pH were investigated by flotation tests, absorption measurements, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results indicated that lower BaCl2 concentration can increase the floatability of K-feldspar, whereas higher BaCl2 concentration can significantly inhibit the flotation of K-feldspar. Peaks at 3548.18, 3475.56 and 3414.35 cm−1 in the FTIR spectra of K-feldspar adsorbed by dodecyl amine chloride revealed three forms of —OH. XPS analyses of K-feldspar adsorbed by Ba2+ showed that the concentration of K atom was reduced by nearly twice as those of Si, Al, and O. The activation of BaCl2 at a low concentration was mainly caused by Ba2+ in the form of the ion exchange between K+ and Ba2+. The inhibitory action of BaCl2 at a high concentration is mainly attributed to the physical absorption of Ba2+ on the surface of K-feldspar and the fact that a high concentration of Cl− causes the chemical equilibrium of dodecyl amine chloride to be changed, and the dodecyl amine chloride in the form of RNH2H+ is reduced.

Graphene oxide modification for enhancing high-density polyethylene properties: a comparison between solvent reaction and melt mixing

Abstract Graphene oxide (GO) was chemically modified in xylene with dodecyl amine and hydrazine monohydrate to obtain reduced functionalized graphene oxide (RFGO). Composites of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and GO were made via solvent reaction, whereas both melt mixing and solvent reaction were used for HDPE-RFGO composites for comparison purposes. Elemental and thermal analysis showed the success of GO modification in grafting amine functionalities onto its structure and restoring most of the original graphene C=C bonds. A significant increase in mechanical properties, thermal stability, and crystallization behavior was observed for HDPE-RFGO (solvent) compared with HDPE and HDPE-GO, proving that homogeneous dispersion of RFGO in the polymer matrix and strong interactions between them resulted in facilitated stress transfer, delayed thermal degradation, and more efficient nucleating effect in inducing the crystal growth of HDPE. A comparison of HDPE-RFGO properties enhancement between the melt mixing method and the solvent reaction method showed that, apart from mechanical behavior, the RFGO contribution was the same, suggesting that the optimization of the ecofriendlier approach (melt) could eventually lead to its total use for the mass production of high-performance, cost-effective, and more environmentally friendly graphene-based thermoplastic polyolefin nanocomposites suitable for highly demanding industrial applications.

Molecular Structure and Decomposition Kinetics of Kaolinite/Alkylamine Intercalation Compounds.

Although the development of clay/polymer nanocomposites and their applications have attracted much attention in recent years, a thorough understanding of the structure and the decomposition mechanism of clay/polymer nanocomposites is still lacking. In this research, the intercalation of kaolinite (Kaol) with different alkylamines were investigated by X-ray diffracion (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry (TG-DSC). The results showed that the intercalation of Kaol/methanol compound with hexylamine (HA), dodecylamine (DA), and octadecylamine (OA) led to the expansion of the interlayer distance and resulted in the dominant basal diffraction at 2.86, 4.08, and 5.66 nm. The alky chains of HA, DA, and OA are tilted toward the Kaol surface in bilayer with an inclination angle of ~40°. The most probable mechanism function, activation energy E, and pre-exponential factor A were obtained by mutual authentication using KAS and Ozawa methods, itrative and Satava integral method. The average activation energy E of the three intercalation compounds are 104.44, 130.80, and 154.59 kJ mol−1, respectively. It shows a positive correlation with the alkyl chain length. The pre-exponential factor A was estimated to be 1.09 × 1015, 1.15 × 108, and 4.17 × 1021 s−1, respectively. The optimized mechanism function for the decomposition of alkylamine is G(α) = [(1-α) −1/3−1]2.

Surface dissolution of spodumene and its role in the flotation concentration of a spodumene ore

The effects of sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate on the flotation of spodumene were investigated by flotation tests, XPS and SEM measurments and thermodynamic analysis. A collector YOA (a mixture of 90% oleic acid and 10% dodecyl amine) was used in the flotation. It was found that sodium hydroxide showed an activation effect whereas sodium carbonate showed a depression effect on the flotation of spodumene. This difference in flotation performance was consistent with the measured contact angles of spodumene treated in sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate solutions, respectively. XPS results indicated that the pretreatment of spodumene surface by sodium hydroxide gave larger relative contents of Al and Li on spodumene surface than that of sodium carbonate, and the scanning electron microscopy images showed rougher surfaces indicating leaching of the mineral surface. The spontaneity of possible reactions associated with the surface dissolution of spodumene in alkaline solutions was also examined, and the results could largely account for the observed difference in surface dissolution of spodumene in sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate solutions.

Surface property variations in flotation performance of calcite particles under different grinding patterns

Based on the working principles of particle bed comminution, particles produced by high-pressure grinding rolls (HPGR) have surface properties different from particles produced by other grinding patterns, which exert great influence on mineral flotation. Flotation performances of calcite particles under different grinding patterns involving the use of HPGR, a jaw crusher, a dry ball mill, a wet ball mill, and a wet rod mill were studied using single mineral flotation tests. The surface properties of the particles under different grinding patterns were characterized to determine the flotation performance variation in terms of specific surface area, particle size distribution, AFM, XPS, and zeta potential. The results show that particles ground by HPGR exhibited improved flotation performance within the lower range of grinding fineness in both NaOL and dodecyl amine flotation systems compared to the particles prepared using other grinding patterns. Specific surface area, particle size distribution, surface roughness, Fe(III) contamination, binding energy, and zeta potential are greatly influenced by grinding patterns, which is the main cause of the flotation performance variation.

Effect of Chain Length Compatibility of Alcohols on Muscovite Flotation by Dodecyl Amine

A portion of dodecyl amine (DDA) in a muscovite flotation system was replaced with alcohols with different carbon-chain lengths. These alcohols included octanol (OCT); decanol (DEC); dodecanol (DOD); and tetradecanol (TER). The muscovite adsorption behavior of the mixed DDA and alcohol systems were investigated through zeta potential; contact angle; and adsorption quantity tests. Single-mineral flotation tests showed that the muscovite-collecting power of the mixed DDA/alcohol (OCT, DEC, or DOD) system was stronger than that of the pure DDA system. The muscovite-collecting power of the collector systems decreased in the following order: DDA/DEC > DDA/OCT > DDA/DEC > DDA > DDA/TER. Zeta potential and contact angle analysis indicated that when combined with DDA; alcohols physically adsorbed on the surfaces of muscovite. This behavior improved the hydrophobicity of muscovite. Furthermore, adsorption analysis revealed that synergy between DDA and alcohol enhanced the adsorption of alcohol on muscovite. DDA has a dominant role in synergistic adsorption; whereas alcohol has a supporting role. Among all tested alcohols; DDA and DOD exhibit the highest synergetic adsorption effect because of their similar carbon-chain lengths. This similarity promotes the formation of a compact adsorption layer on the muscovite surface.

A Novel Lubricant Based on Covalent Functionalized Graphene Oxide Quantum Dots

Dodecyl amine edge functionalized few-layer graphene oxide quantum dots were synthesized in good yields. The covalent functionalization was demonstrated with NMR and AFM-IR. The resulting structure and particle size was measured with AFM and HRTEM. The thermal stability of the compound was investigated and showed a stability of up to 220 °C. The modified graphene oxide quantum dots showed excellent solubility in various organic solvents, including ethers, methanol, toluene, n-hexane, heptane, xylene, dichloromethane and toluene. The stability of a resulting toluene solution was also proven by static light scattering measurements over several days. The excellent solubility gives the possibility of an efficient and fast spray application of the functionalized graphene oxide quantum dots to steel surfaces. Hence, the macroscopic friction behavior was investigated with a Thwing-Albert FP-2250 friction tester. A thin film of the dodecyl amine functionalized graphene oxide quantum dots on steel lowered the friction coefficient from 0.17 to 0.11 and revealed a significant corrosion inhibition effect.

CO2 as versatile carbonation agent of glycosides: Synthesis of 5- and 6-membered cyclic glycocarbonates and investigation of their ring-opening

This study demonstrates the successful use of CO2 as versatile carbonation agent for the synthesis of 5-membered and 6-membered bicyclic glycocarbonates from methyl α-d-mannopyranoside (MDM) and methyl α-d-galactopyranoside (MDG). On the one hand, these two sugars were cyclized into 5-membered glycocarbonates by mere reaction of CO2 with their hydroxyls either at cis-2,3 or cis-3,4 positions and without resorting to phosgene or its derivatives. The reactivity of the obtained 5-membered cyclic glycocarbonates were further tested with hexyl- and dodecyl amine. The self-assembling behavior of the formed alkyl glycosides in water was investigated and characterized by transmission electron microscope (TEM).On the other hand, secondary hydroxyls at 2- and 3- positions in MDM and MDG were first protected by a ketal group and by two ether, respectively before subjecting their respective 6-position hydroxyl to bromination. Their respective 6-bromo and 4-hydroxyl functions were subsequently reacted in the presence of 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) and CO2. The resulting 6-membered cyclic glycocarbonates were then polymerized using 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene (TBD) or DBU as organocatalyst. All the synthesized 5- and 6-membered cyclic glycocarbonates and polyglycocarbonates were thoroughly characterized by FT-IR, 1H, 13C NMR and MALDI-ToF and Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC).

Inhibiting the amine flotation of magnetite through aggregation with uniform low magnetic fields and no chemical depressants

The depression of magnetite in cationic flotation has been investigated using external 3D uniform low magnetic flux densities up to 0.015 T, in a laboratory Jameson-type flotation cell and in the absence of chemical depressants. In addition, the magnetic susceptibility and agglomeration of pure magnetite particles have been evaluated. The motion, size and morphology of magnetite aggregates and bubbles-magnetite aggregates in the flotation cell have been monitored by video microscopy. The cationic collector dodecyl amine and an iron concentrate with 65.1% total Fe, mainly as magnetite, were used for the flotation studies. In the absence of a magnetic field, the magnetite particles were fully dispersed and the iron flotation recovery linearly increased with the amine concentration. The 3D uniform magnetic flux density led to aggregation of magnetite particles as chains and chain columns whose sizes increased as the magnetic flux density increased. These magnetite aggregates rapidly settled by the action of the gravitational force and were removed easily from the flotation cell as tailings. The high amine flotation recovery of iron was significantly impaired by the magnetic field. Magnetite depression was associated with the large mass of the magnetite aggregates, which could not be floated by attached air bubbles so that they passed out as tailings.

Pyrolysis behaviors of organic matter (OM) with the same alkyl main chain but different functional groups in the presence of clay minerals

Abstract Organic matter (OM)-clay mineral complexes, especially OM-clay interlayer complexes, exist widely in soil, sediment, and source rock. These associations can influence the pyrolytic behaviors of OM. In addition, the nature of OM may also affect pyrolysis due to the variety and complexity of the structure and chemical composition of natural organics. In this study, to investigate the influences of the nature of OM as well as the interface association between OM and clay minerals on the pyrolysis of OM, interlayer clay-OM complexes and clay-OM mixtures were prepared and thermogravimetry coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TG-FTIR) was adapted to monitor the pyrolytic temperatures and products of these complexes. A series of OM with the same alkyl main chain but different functional groups, i.e., Lauric acid (LA), Dodecylamine (DA), 12-Aminolauric acid (ALA) and Dodecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (DTAB), was used, and montmorillonite (Mt) was selected as the representative clay mineral. The results showed that Mt decreased the decomposition temperature of the carboxyl groups that contained OM (LA and ALA), promoted the generation of CO2 via the catalysis of the Lewis acid sites of Mt, and delayed the decomposition of DA and DTAB. The interlayer Bronsted acid sites allowed the nitrogen-containing organics to undergo Hoffmann elimination. The pyrolytic behaviors of OM within the interlayers of Mt were more strongly affected than those on the external surface of Mt The pyrolytic performance of OM was closely related to the association ways between OM and clay minerals, the nature of clay minerals, and the nature of OM. The interlayer space was shown to be particularly important for the preservation and catalysis of organics.

Investigation of effect of surfactants on the hydrophobicity of low rank coal by sliding time measurements

In this paper, effect of surfactants on the hydrophobicity of low rank coal particles by sliding time measurements was investigated. X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS) analysis indicated that the surfaces of low rank coal particle consisted of many hydrophilic functional groups. It was observed that the sliding time of low rank coal particles in 2-ethyl hexanol solution was the shortest than that of low rank coal particles in dodecyl amine hydrochloride (DAH) and sodium dodecyle sulfate (SDS) solutions. Moreover, the maximum touching angle (θT) of low rank coal particles observed in 10−2 mol/L of 2-ethyl hexanol solution was about 80°, which was the greatest than that of low rank coal particles, about 39° in 10−3 mol/L of DAH and 35° in 10−4 mol/L of SDS solutions, respectively. Therefore, the sliding time results indicated that the hydrophobicity of low rank coal was enhanced by 2-ethyl hexanol and DAH and reduced by SDS. However, it was noted that the hydrophobicity of low rank coal was depressed when the DAH concentration increased to 10−2 mol/L. The flotation performances were consistent with the results of sliding time measurements. Therefore, effect of surfactants on the hydrophobicity of low rank coal particles can be characterized by sliding time measurements.

Separation of palladium and silver from semiconductor solid waste by means of liquid-liquid-powder extraction using dodecyl amine acetate as a surfactant collector

Abstract Liquid-liquid-powder extraction (LLPE) is the process of transferring fine solid particles from one liquid phase to another immiscible liquid in contact across the liquid-liquid boundary using a surface-active agent as a collector. LLPE has been applied to semiconductor fine solid waste to extract valuable Pd and Ag particles from Al using dodecyl amine acetate (DAA) surfactant as collector, kerosene as an organic phase and pure water as the aqueous hydrophilic phase. Metal concentrations in each phase was dependent on solution pH, and the recovery of Pd and Ag was highly dependent on this parameter. However, a pH of 10 was found to be optimal for separation of precious metals from Al, with Pd and Ag concentrating in the kerosene phase under this condition. The metal distribution as a function of DAA dosage at pH 10, showed that Pd and Al reached their maximum extraction percentages at a DAA dosage of 0.15%, whereas the Ag extraction percentage reached a maximum at a dosage of 0.2%. Thus, 0.15% was determined to be the optimum DAA dosage, which gave Pd and Ag concentrations 6.05 and 3.6 times higher than the feed, respectively, with respective extraction percentages of 87.78 ± 3.72% and 87.42 ± 3.81%. Moreover, 74.52 ± 7.72% of Al could be separated from Pd and Ag.