Dobzhansky-Muller Incompatibilities Research Articles

Causative genes of intrinsic hybrid incompatibility in animals and plants: What we have learned about speciation from the molecular perspective

Abstract Intrinsic hybrid incompatibility is one of the important reproductive isolating mechanisms between species. Several genes causing intrinsic hybrid incompatibilities have been identified over the last few decades. Information on these causative genes and mutations of intrinsic hybrid incompatibilities helps us answer several important evolutionary questions regarding the plausibility of classic theoretical models of intrinsic hybrid incompatibilities, the evolutionary driving forces involved, and the repeatability of molecular mechanisms across taxa. Here, we made an updated list of the causative genes of intrinsic hybrid incompatibilities in animals and plants. Although several empirical cases are consistent with the classic two-locus Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibility (DMI) model, there are many cases in which epistatic interactions are more complex. Animals and plants appear to share several molecular mechanisms of intrinsic hybrid incompatibility. In both animals and plants, many causative genes evolve under genomic conflicts. Some taxonomic differences may result from inherent physiological differences. As most studies are biased toward a limited number of model organisms, further studies on natural systems across diverse taxa are necessary for the quantitative assessment of these patterns in nature.

Coevolutionary Interactions between Sexual and Habitat Isolation during Reinforcement.

Speciation often involves the evolution of multiple genetic-based barriers to gene flow (i.e., "coupling"). However, barriers may exhibit a diversity of evolutionary interactions during speciation. These dynamics are important in reinforcement, where selection may favor different prezygotic isolating barriers to avoid maladaptive hybridization. Here we study the interaction between evolution of sexual and habitat isolation. We first review the empirical literature where both barriers were explicitly considered, and then develop a population genetic model of reinforcement. Most studies of both sexual and habitat isolation were found in phytophagous insect systems. In 76% of these studies, both barriers coevolved; the remaining cases either showed only habitat isolation (21%) or only sexual isolation (3%). Our two-allele genetic mechanism model of each barrier also found that these often coevolved, but habitat isolation was generally more effective during reinforcement. Depending on the fitness of hybrids (e.g., Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities) and initial migration rate, these barriers could either facilitate, curtail, or have no effect on each other. This indicates that basic parameters will alter the underlying evolutionary dynamics, and thus the nature of "speciation coupling" will be highly variable in natural systems. Finally, we studied initially asymmetrical migration rates and found that populations with higher initial emigration evolved stronger habitat isolation, while populations that initially received more immigrants exhibited stronger sexual isolation. These results are in line with observations in some empirical studies, but more data is needed to test their generality.

Experimental evolution of hybrid populations to identify Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibility loci.

Epistatic interactions between loci that reduce fitness in interspecies hybrids, Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities (DMIs), contribute genetically to the inviability and infertility within hybrid populations. It remains a challenge, however, to identify the loci that contribute to DMIs as causes of reproductive isolation between species. Here, we assess through forward simulation the power of evolve-and-resequence (E&R) experimental evolution of hybrid populations to map DMI loci. We document conditions under which such a mapping strategy may be most feasible and demonstrate how mapping power is sensitive to biologically relevant parameters such as one-way versus two-way incompatibility type, selection strength, recombination rate, and dominance interactions. We also assess the influence of parameters under direct control of an experimenter, including duration of experimental evolution and number of replicate populations. We conclude that an E&R strategy for mapping DMI loci, and other cases of epistasis, can be a viable option under some circumstances for study systems with short generation times like Caenorhabditis nematodes.

Postzygotic barriers persist despite ongoing introgression in hybridizing Mimulus species.

The evolution of postzygotic isolation is thought to be a key step in maintaining species boundaries upon secondary contact, yet the dynamics and persistence of hybrid incompatibilities in naturally hybridizing species are not well understood. Here, we explore these issues using genetic mapping in three independent populations of recombinant inbred lines between naturally hybridizing monkeyflowers, Mimulus guttatus and Mimulus nasutus, from the sympatric Catherine Creek population. We discover that the three M. guttatus founders differ dramatically in admixture history, with nearly a quarter of one founder's genome introgressed from M. nasutus. Comparative genetic mapping in the three RIL populations reveals three new putative inversions, each one segregating among the M. guttatus founders, two due to admixture. We find strong, genome-wide transmission ratio distortion in all RILs, but patterns are highly variable among the three populations. At least some of this distortion appears to be explained by epistatic selection favouring parental genotypes, but tests of inter-chromosomal linkage disequilibrium also reveal multiple candidate Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities. We also map several genetic loci for hybrid pollen viability, including two interacting pairs that coincide with peaks of distortion. Remarkably, even with this limited sample of three M. guttatus lines, we discover abundant segregating variation for hybrid incompatibilities with M. nasutus, suggesting this population harbours diverse contributors to postzygotic isolation. Moreover, even with substantial admixture, hybrid incompatibilities between Mimulus species persist, suggesting postzygotic isolation might be a potent force in maintaining species barriers in this system.

Genomic mechanisms and consequences of diverse postzygotic barriers between monkeyflower species.

The evolution of genomic incompatibilities causing postzygotic barriers to hybridization is a key step in species divergence. Incompatibilities take two general forms - structural divergence between chromosomes leading to severe hybrid sterility in F1 hybrids and epistatic interactions between genes causing reduced fitness of hybrid gametes or zygotes (Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities). Despite substantial recent progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms and evolutionary origins of both types of incompatibility, how each behaves across multiple generations of hybridization remains relatively unexplored. Here, we use genetic mapping in F2 and RIL hybrid populations between the phenotypically divergent but naturally hybridizing monkeyflowers Mimulus cardinalis and M. parishii to characterize the genetic basis of hybrid incompatibility and examine its changing effects over multiple generations of experimental hybridization. In F2s, we found severe hybrid pollen inviability (< 50% reduction vs. parental genotypes) and pseudolinkage caused by a reciprocal translocation between Chromosomes 6 and 7 in the parental species. RILs retained excess heterozygosity around the translocation breakpoints, which caused substantial pollen inviability when interstitial crossovers had not created compatible heterokaryotypic configurations. Strong transmission ratio distortion and inter-chromosomal linkage disequilibrium in both F2s and RILs identified a novel two-locus genic incompatibility causing sex-independent gametophytic (haploid) lethality. The latter interaction eliminated three of the expected nine F2 genotypic classes via F1 gamete loss without detectable effects on the pollen number or viability of F2 double heterozygotes. Along with the mapping of numerous milder incompatibilities, these key findings illuminate the complex genetics of plant hybrid breakdown and are an important step toward understanding the genomic consequences of natural hybridization in this model system.

Blood transcriptome analysis in a buck-ewe hybrid points towards an nuclear factor-kappa B lymphoproliferative autoimmune disorder

Mammal hybridization is a speciation mechanism and an evolutionary driver. Goat-sheep, especially buck-ewe hybrids, are very rare with only one case reported in 2016, which is the subject of the work presented here. Blood transcriptome analysis revealed that the hybrid largely deviated from imprinting schemes previously described in sheep and other mammals. Furthermore, transcriptome regulation seems to differ from the parent transcriptomes, which is most likely a product of partially incompatible imprinting mechanisms from two closely related species. To gain a deeper understanding of hybridization in mammals we re-analyzed the RNA sequencing data of the buck-ewe hybrid and its parents. We found parent-of-origin-specific expression of genes that functionally clustered, which we explain with the Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibility (DMI) model. According to the DMI model, proteins which interact have a high probability of being barrier loci and hence are prone to monoallelic expression. We discovered enrichment of genes uniquely expressed by the buck-ewe hybrid, which implicate that it suffered from an NF-κB lymphoproliferative autoimmune disorder. Similar findings were reported in the F1 generation of hybrid mice. We propose that hybridization of two related species may lead to an autoimmune phenotype, due to immunoglobulin incompatibilities and incomplete silencing of barrier loci.

Is Neanderthal gene introgression into Homo sapiens genome an adaptive anti-inflammatory phenomenon that increases depression risk?

Genes of Neanderthal ancestry are believed to have become incorporated in the modern Homo sapiens genome via hybridisation and introgression. Although the majority have been eliminated from the population by natural selection due to Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities, some of them nevertheless remain, suggesting they have been selected for and have some adaptive value. The current work examines hypotheses explaining the emergence of depressive symptoms and disorders from an evolutionary standpoint. Neither the incentive hypothesis nor any social hypothesis (social position hypothesis, attachment hypothesis, social navigation hypothesis) accommodates any evidence of archaic introgression. However, the immunological hypothesis, corroborated by a considerable body of research, treats depressive symptoms as part of immunologic response. According to the hypothesis, infections have placed a considerable selective pressure on humans. Upon arrival in Eurasia from Africa, Homo sapiens was confronted with unknown pathogenic microorganisms. In contrast, the Neanderthals populating Eurasia had already been adapting to them for millennia. Introgression of Neanderthal man alleles of genes associated with the immunological response has already been demonstrated in Homo sapiens, and may well increase the fitness of newcomers. Such inclusion of genes connected with depressive symptoms may explain why archaic alleles are still present in the gene pool of modern humans.

Speciation without gene-flow in hybridizing deer.

Under the ecological speciation model, divergent selection acts on ecological differences between populations, gradually creating barriers to gene flow and ultimately leading to reproductive isolation. Hybridisation is part of this continuum and can both promote and inhibit the speciation process. Here, we used white-tailed (Odocoileus virginianus) and mule deer (O. hemionus) to investigate patterns of speciation in hybridizing sister species. We quantified genome-wide historical introgression and performed genome scans to look for signatures of four different selection scenarios. Despite ample modern evidence of hybridisation, we found negligible patterns of ancestral introgression and no signatures of divergence with gene flow, rather localized patterns of allopatric and balancing selection were detected across the genome. Genes under balancing selection were related to immunity, MHC and sensory perception of smell, the latter of which is consistent with deer biology. The deficiency of historical gene-flow suggests that white-tailed and mule deer were spatially separated during the glaciation cycles of the Pleistocene and genome wide differentiation accrued via genetic drift. Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities and selection against hybrids are hypothesised to be acting, and diversity correlations to recombination rates suggests these sister species are far along the speciation continuum.

On the impermanence of species: The collapse of genetic incompatibilities in hybridizing populations.

Species pairs often become genetically incompatible during divergence, which is an important source of reproductive isolation. An idealized picture is often painted where incompatibility alleles accumulate and fix between diverging species. However, recent studies have shown both that incompatibilities can collapse with ongoing hybridization, and that incompatibility loci can be polymorphic within species. This paper suggests some general rules for the behavior of incompatibilities under hybridization. In particular, we argue that redundancy of genetic pathways can strongly affect the dynamics of intrinsic incompatibilities. Since fitness in genetically redundant systems is unaffected by introducing a few foreign alleles, higher redundancy decreases the stability of incompatibilities during hybridization, but also increases tolerance of incompatibility polymorphism within species. We use simulations and theories to show that this principle leads to two types of collapse: in redundant systems, exemplified by classical Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities, collapse is continuous and approaches a quasi-neutral polymorphism between broadly sympatric species, often as a result of isolation-by-distance. In nonredundant systems, exemplified by co-evolution among genetic elements, incompatibilities are often stable, but can collapse abruptly with spatial traveling waves. As both types are common, the proposed principle may be useful in understanding the abundance of genetic incompatibilities in naturalpopulations.

Enforcement of Postzygotic Species Boundaries in the Fungal Kingdom.

Understanding the molecular basis of speciation is a primary goal in evolutionary biology. The formation of the postzygotic reproductive isolation that causes hybrid dysfunction, thereby reducing gene flow between diverging populations, is crucial for speciation. Using various advanced approaches, including chromosome replacement, hybrid introgression and transcriptomics, population genomics, and experimental evolution, scientists have revealed multiple mechanisms involved in postzygotic barriers in the fungal kingdom. These results illuminate both unique and general features of fungal speciation. Our review summarizes experiments on fungi exploring how Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibility, killer meiotic drive, chromosome rearrangements, and antirecombination contribute to postzygotic reproductive isolation. We also discuss possible evolutionary forces underlying different reproductive isolation mechanisms and the potential roles of the evolutionary arms race under the Red Queen hypothesis and epigenetic divergence in speciation.

Proteotoxicity caused by perturbed protein complexes underlies hybrid incompatibility in yeast

Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities represent a major driver of reproductive isolation between species. They are caused when interacting components encoded by alleles from different species cannot function properly when mixed. At incipient stages of speciation, complex incompatibilities involving multiple genetic loci with weak effects are frequently observed, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here we show perturbed proteostasis leading to compromised mitosis and meiosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae hybrid lines carrying one or two chromosomes from Saccharomyces bayanus var. uvarum. Levels of proteotoxicity are correlated with the number of protein complexes on replaced chromosomes. Proteomic approaches reveal that multi-protein complexes with subunits encoded by replaced chromosomes tend to be unstable. Furthermore, hybrid defects can be alleviated or aggravated, respectively, by up- or down-regulating the ubiquitin-proteasomal degradation machinery, suggesting that destabilized complex subunits overburden the proteostasis machinery and compromise hybrid fitness. Our findings reveal the general role of impaired protein complex assembly in complex incompatibilities.

Immunoglobulin genes, reproductive isolation and vertebrate speciation

Reproductive isolation drives the formation of new species, and many genes contribute to this through Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities (DMIs). These incompatibilities occur when gene divergence affects loci encoding interacting products such as receptors and their ligands. We suggest here that the nature of vertebrate immunoglobulin (IG) genes must make them prone to DMIs. The genes of these complex loci form functional genes through the process of recombination, giving rise to a repertoire of heterodimeric receptors of incredible diversity. This repertoire, within individuals and within species, must defend against pathogens but must also avoid pathogenic self‐reactivity. We suggest that this avoidance of autoimmunity is only achieved through a coordination of evolution between heavy‐ and light‐chain genes, and between these genes and the rest of the genome. Without coordinated evolution, the hybrid offspring of two diverging populations will carry a heavy burden of DMIs, resulting in a loss of fitness. Critical incompatibilities could manifest as incompatibilities between a mother and her divergent offspring. During fetal development, biochemical differences between the parents of hybrid offspring could make their offspring a target of the maternal immune system. This hypothesis was conceived in the light of recent insights into the population genetics of IG genes. This has suggested that antibody genes are probably as susceptible to evolutionary forces as other parts of the genome. Further repertoire studies in human and nonhuman species should now help determine whether antibody genes have been part of the evolutionary forces that drive the development of species.

Divergent gut microbiota in two closely related house mouse subspecies under common garden conditions.

The gastrointestinal microbiota (GM) is considered an important component of the vertebrate holobiont. GM-host interactions influence the fitness of holobionts and are, therefore, an integral part of evolution. The house mouse is a prominent model for GM-host interactions, and evidence suggests a role for GM in mouse speciation. However, previous studies based on short 16S rRNA GM profiles of wild house mouse subspecies failed to detect GM divergence, which is a prerequisite for the inclusion of GM in Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities. Here, we used standard 16S rRNA GM profiling in two mouse subspecies, Mus musculus musculus and M. m. domesticus, including the intestinal mucosa and content of three gut sections (ileum, caecum, and colon). We reduced environmental variability by sampling GM in the offspring of wild mice bred under seminatural conditions. Although the breeding conditions allowed a contact between the subspecies, we found a clear differentiation of GM between them, in all three gut sections. Differentiation was mainly driven by several Helicobacters and two H. ganmani variants showed a signal of codivergence with their hosts. Helicobacters represent promising candidates for studying GM-host coadaptations and the fitness effects of their interactions.

Hybrid fitness effects modify fixation probabilities of introgressed alleles.

Hybridization is a common occurrence in natural populations, and introgression is a major source of genetic variation. Despite the evolutionary importance of adaptive introgression, classical population genetics theory does not take into account hybrid fitness effects. Specifically, heterosis (i.e. hybrid vigor) and Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities influence the fates of introgressed alleles. Here, we explicitly account for polygenic, unlinked hybrid fitness effects when tracking a rare introgressed marker allele. These hybrid fitness effects quickly decay over time due to repeated backcrossing, enabling a separation-of-timescales approach. Using diffusion and branching process theory in combination with computer simulations, we formalize the intuition behind how hybrid fitness effects affect introgressed alleles. We find that hybrid fitness effects can significantly hinder or boost the fixation probability of introgressed alleles, depending on the relative strength of heterosis and Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities effects. We show that the inclusion of a correction factor (α, representing the compounded effects of hybrid fitness effects over time) into classic population genetics theory yields accurate fixation probabilities. Despite having a strong impact on the probability of fixation, hybrid fitness effects only subtly change the distribution of fitness effects of introgressed alleles that reach fixation. Although strong Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibility effects may expedite the loss of introgressed alleles, fixation times are largely unchanged by hybrid fitness effects.

Imbalanced segregation of recombinant haplotypes in hybrid populations reveals inter- and intrachromosomal Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities.

Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities (DMIs) are a major component of reproductive isolation between species. DMIs imply negative epistasis and are exposed when two diverged populations hybridize. Mapping the locations of DMIs has largely relied on classical genetic mapping. Approaches to date are hampered by low power and the challenge of identifying DMI loci on the same chromosome, because strong initial linkage of parental haplotypes weakens statistical tests. Here, we propose new statistics to infer negative epistasis from haplotype frequencies in hybrid populations. When two divergent populations hybridize, the variance in heterozygosity at two loci decreases faster with time at DMI loci than at random pairs of loci. When two populations hybridize at near-even admixture proportions, the deviation of the observed variance from its expectation becomes negative for the DMI pair. This negative deviation enables us to detect intermediate to strong negative epistasis both within and between chromosomes. In practice, the detection window in hybrid populations depends on the demographic scenario, the recombination rate, and the strength of epistasis. When the initial proportion of the two parental populations is uneven, only strong DMIs can be detected with our method unless migration prevents parental haplotypes from being lost. We use the new statistics to infer candidate DMIs from three hybrid populations of swordtail fish. We identify numerous new DMI candidates, some of which are inferred to interact with several loci within and between chromosomes. Moreover, we discuss our results in the context of an expected enrichment in intrachromosomal over interchromosomal DMIs.

Hybrid breakdown is elevated near the historical cores of a species' range.

New species form when they become reproductively isolated. A classic model of speciation posits that derived mutations appear in isolated populations and reduce fitness when combined in hybrids. While these Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities are known to accumulate as populations diverge over time, they may also reflect the amount of standing genetic variation within populations. We analysed the fitness of F2 hybrids in crosses between 24 populations of a plant species (Campanula americana) with broad variation in standing genetic variation and genetic differentiation driven by post-glacial range expansions. Hybrid breakdown varied substantially and was strongest between populations near the historical cores of the species range where within-population genetic diversity was high. Nearly half of the variation in hybrid breakdown was predicted by the combined effects of standing genetic variation within populations, their pairwise genetic differentiation and differences in the climates they inhabit. Hybrid breakdown was enhanced between populations inhabiting distinct climates, likely reflecting local adaptation. Results support that the mutations causing hybrid breakdown, the raw material for speciation, are more common in long-inhabited areas of the species range. Genetic diversity harboured in refugial areas is thus an important source of incompatibilities critical to the speciation process.

Migration restores hybrid incompatibility driven by mitochondrial-nuclear sexual conflict.

In the mitochondrial genome, sexual asymmetry in transmission allows the accumulation of male-harming mutations since selection acts only on the effect of the mutation in females. Called the 'Mother's Curse', this phenomenon induces a selective pressure for nuclear variants that compensate for this reduction in male fitness. Previous work has demonstrated the existence of these interactions and their potential to act as Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities, contributing to reproductive isolation between populations. However, it is not clear how readily they would give rise to and sustain hybrid incompatibilities. Here, we use computer simulations in SLiM 3 to investigate the consequences of sexually antagonistic mitochondrial-nuclear interactions in a subdivided population. We consider distinct migration schemes and vary the chromosomal location, and consequently the transmission pattern, of nuclear restorers. Disrupting these co-evolved interactions results in less-fit males, skewing the sex ratio toward females. Restoration of male fitness depends on both the chromosomal location of nuclear restorer loci and the migration scheme. Our results show that these interactions may act as Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities, but their strength is not enough to drive population isolation. Overall, this model shows the varied ways in which populations can respond to migration's disruption of co-evolved mitochondrial-nuclear interactions.

Genetic and morphological data demonstrate hybridization and backcrossing in a pair of salamanders at the far end of the speciation continuum.

Deeply diverged yet hybridizing species provide a system to investigate the final stages of the speciation process. We study a hybridizing pair of salamander species—the morphologically and genetically drastically different newts Triturus cristatus and T. marmoratus—with a panel of 32 nuclear and mitochondrial genetic markers. Morphologically identified hybrids are mostly of the F1 generation and mothered by T. cristatus. The sex ratio of the F1 hybrid class is reciprocally skewed, with a preponderance of females in T. cristatus‐mothered hybrids and males in T. marmoratus‐mothered hybrids. This amounts to the Haldane effect operating in one direction of the cross. Deeper generation hybrids are occasionally produced, possibly including F1 hybrid × backcross hybrid offspring. Interspecific gene flow is low, yet skewed toward T. cristatus. This asymmetry may be caused by hybrid zone movement, with the superseding species being predisposed to introgression. The persisting gene flow between deeply differentiated species supports the notion that full genetic isolation may be selected against. Conversely, published morphological data suggest that introgressive hybridization is detrimental, with digital malformations occurring more frequently in the area of sympatry. Finally, to assist field identification, both within the area of natural range overlap and concerning anthropogenic introductions elsewhere, we document the phenotypical variation of two generations of hybrids compared with both parental species. We suggest that fluctuating range boundaries, ecological segregation, cytonuclear incompatibilities and hybrid breakdown through Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities all contribute to species integrity, despite incomplete isolation during secondary contact.

Asymmetric viability in reciprocal crosses of zebrafish Danio rerio and pearl danio Danio albolineatus.

Interspecies hybrids have long been studied to further understanding of speciation. Reciprocal crosses sometimes have asymmetric viability, a phenomenon termed 'Darwin's corollary to Haldane's rule'. It has been proposed that this asymmetry is caused by Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities between nuclear genes and cytoplasmic factors (e.g., maternal transcripts, mitochondrial genome). The molecular basis of this hypothesis has received little empirical investigation, presumably due to the lack of an appropriate model system. We report a case of extreme asymmetry in viability between reciprocal hybrids of zebrafish Danio rerio and pearl danio Danio albolineatus. Hybrids from D. rerio females × D. albolineatus males (n=4 crosses) were viable, with 83.2 ± 9.6% surviving from fertilization to 5 days post-fertilization (dpf) and 80.1 ± 14.4% surviving from 5 to 21 dpf. Hybrids from D. albolineatus females × D. rerio males (n=6 crosses) were inviable after embryonic development. These hybrids developed pericardial oedema at 1dpf and only 37.2 ± 18.0% survived from fertilization to 5dpf. Of the 595 larvae alive at 5dpf, only one juvenile with stunted growth survived to 21 dpf. We propose that given the resources available for the D. rerio model system and the strong asymmetry in viability between reciprocal crosses, these hybrids will allow investigation of the molecular basis for Darwin's corollary to Haldane's rule.

On the Neglected Shifting balance theory, Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model &amp; Quantum evolution plus the Role of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential (MMP) Impact on COVID-19

Background: Approximately 80% of all viruses are RNA viruses and they contain their specific RNA helicases. Defective RNA helicases have been linked to infectious diseases (Viral Infections). Materials and Methods: The articles have gone through many types of research from the beginning of the epidemic of Coronaviruses through history and we introduced the neglected hypothesis of Shifting balance theory, Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model &amp; Quantum evolution. In the ancestral population, the genotype is AABB. When two populations become isolated from each other, new mutations can arise. In one population A evolves into a, and in the other B evolves into b. When the two populations hybridize it is the first time A and B interact with each other. When these alleles are incompatible, we speak of Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities plus the role of MMA in mitochondria in spreading SARS-CoV-19 through populations and the result of an infection in COVID-19. Results: In viruses specifically COVID-19, Ribosomal Frameshift is programmed to allows the virus to encode multiple types of proteins from the same mRNA. HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency virus), RSV (Rous sarcoma virus), and all types of influenza viruses use Ribosomal Frameshift. they rely on frameshifting to create a proper ratio of normal translation and trans-frame (encoded by frameshifted sequence) proteins. Notably, its use in viruses is primarily for compacting more genetic information into a shorter amount of genetic material. Conclusion: to find the genome sequence of COVID-19 we also used Nanopore sequencing that introduced and manufactured by Oxford scientists, due to differences in the action of infection in the host, we could not reach any results since the Novel Virus has not a stable genome (which is quite dynamic) since through our deep research, each virus contains its specific genome sequencing and we cannot claim that COVID-19 has one specific genome sequence like MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV or any types of viruses which has been discovered and contains their specific genome.