Ant Diversity Research Articles

Ant Diversity and Community Composition in Alpine Tree Line Ecotones

Simple SummaryAlpine grasslands are among the few terrestrial habitats not obviously dominated by ants. Yet few studies have addressed how ant communities change along tree-line ecotones on mountains. We combined five survey methods to assess ant assemblages along the tree line at five mountains in the south-central Alps of Italy. Ant species richness peaked directly at the tree line, but this was not due to a mixing of forest with grassland species. In subalpine forest and at the tree line, ant assemblages were dominated by mound-building red wood ants. Community composition and functional species traits indicated competition as a potential effect of community assembly in subalpine forest. Further, habitat features such as elevation, dwarf shrub cover, and the extent of a soil humus layer shaped species composition of ant communities around the tree line.Ants are crucial for the functioning of many terrestrial ecosystems, but detailed knowledge of their ecological role is often lacking. This is true for high mountains where a steep environmental gradient exists from mountainous forest, densely populated by ants, to grassland habitats above the tree line, harboring a sparse ant community. We assessed ant communities in and around the tree line ecotone on five slopes in the southern-central Alps, focusing on their species diversity, community composition, and functional dimensions. Species richness and functional diversity were highest directly at the ecotone. Ant community composition was shaped by elevation and shrub cover. Further, the abundance of the dominant mound-building red wood ants (Formica s. str.) influenced the community composition of the subordinate species. We conclude that over the tree line ecotone a shift in predominance from biotic limitations in the forest to abiotic filters in the alpine environment takes place.

Ants species richness and diversity in relation to different ecological habitat in selected localities of the semi-arid region of Karnataka, India.

We analysed the taxonomic position and species diversity of ants in four different habitats (agriculture, vegetative, dry land, and human habitats). A total of 11,038 ant workers belonging to 40 species, 25 genera of 10 tribes, and six subfamilies were recorded. The Simpson index of diversity (1-D) was 0.97, indicating greater diversity in both vegetative and human habitat. Similarly, the Shannon index was 3.40 and 3.50 for both vegetative and human habitats, respectively, indicating assemblage of similar ant species in both habitats. In contrast, for agricultural habitat, Simpson index of diversity (1-D) was 0.90, and for dry land habitat, the least diversity of 0.80 was reported. However, in pair-wise comparisons, no significant difference was observed between agriculture and dry land and vegetative and human habitats. The agriculture and arid land habitats tend to have fewer species compared with the vegetative and human habitats. Human-disturbed areas have an important role as reservoirs of biodiversity and should be included in landscape management practices to improve ant conservation in the tropics.

Bacterial Composition and Diversity of the Digestive Tract of Odontomachus monticola Emery and Ectomomyrmex javanus Mayr.

Simple SummaryBacteria are considered to be one of the compelling participants in ant dietary differentiation. The digestive tract of ants is characterized by a developed crop, an elaborate proventriculus, and an infrabuccal pocket, which is a special filtrating structure in the mouthparts, adapting to their special trophallaxis behavior. Ponerine ants are true predators and a primitive ant group; notably, their gut bacterial communities get less attention than herbivorous ants. In this study, we investigated the composition and diversity of bacterial communities in the digestive tract and the infrabuccal pockets of two widely distributed ponerine species (Odontomachus monticola Emery and Ectomomyrmex javanus Mayr) in northwestern China using high-throughput sequencing of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene. The results revealed that, not only do the gut bacterial communities display significant interspecies differences, but they also possess apparent intercolony characteristics. Within each colony, the bacterial communities were highly similar between each gut section (crops, midguts, and hindguts) of workers, but significantly different from their infrabuccal pockets, which were similar to bacterial communities in larvae of O. monticola. The relationship of the bacterial communities among the infrabuccal pockets, gut sections and larvae provide meaningful information to understand the social life and feeding behavior of ants.Ponerine ants are generalist predators feeding on a variety of small arthropods, annelids, and isopods; however, knowledge of their bacterial communities is rather limited. This study investigated the bacterial composition and diversity in the digestive tract (different gut sections and the infrabuccal pockets (IBPs)) of two ponerine ant species (Odontomachus monticola Emery and Ectomomyrmex javanus Mayr) distributed in northwestern China using high-throughput sequencing. We found that several dominant bacteria that exist in other predatory ants were also detected in these two ponerine ant species, including Wolbachia, Mesoplasma, and Spiroplasma. Bacterial communities of these two ant species were differed significantly from each other, and significant differences were also observed across their colonies, showing distinctive inter-colony characteristics. Moreover, bacterial communities between the gut sections (crops, midguts, and hindguts) of workers were highly similar within colony, but they were clearly different from those in IBPs. Further, bacterial communities in the larvae of O. monticola were similar to those in the IBPs of workers, but significantly different from those in gut sections. We presume that the bacterial composition and diversity in ponerine ants are related to their social behavior and feeding habits, and bacterial communities in the IBPs may play a potential role in their social life.

Ant species but not trait diversity increases at the edges: insights from a micro‐scale gradient in a semi‐natural Mediterranean ecosystem

1. Different habitat types are generally associated with shifts in ant species and traits, and even along a micro‐scale woodland–grassland gradient, ant biodiversity may change at the edge proximities as a result of abiotic alterations. However, to the best of authors' knowledge, the changes in ant diversity along this type of gradient are understudied, especially from a functional perspective.2. The authors sampled ant species in eight micro‐scale woodland–grassland gradients in a Mediterranean ecosystem, each comprising 16 m, to assess how ant species diversity, community composition, functional structure, and single‐ and multi‐trait functional diversity change at the edge and in the two adjacent habitats (woodland and grassland) as the distance from the edge increases.3. No differences in species richness, species diversity, and community composition were found within the woodland and grassland habitats. Distance from the edge into the adjacent habitats explained changes in functional structure and diversity, which mainly increased in the grassland habitat; body length, leg length, sugar‐based diet, dominant behaviour, and multi‐trait diversity increased in the grassland. Along the micro‐scale gradient, edges showed the highest species diversity and community composition that resulted from the overlap of the communities from the adjacent habitats.4. This study shed light on changes in ant species and traits along a micro‐scale woodland–grassland gradient, and it highlights the importance of integrating different diversity approaches (functional and taxonomic) at a micro‐spatial scale.

Ground-dwelling ant diversity in Amazonian secondary forests and neighboring pastures

The expansion of livestock farming is one of the main causes of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Intensive land use for beef production can cause changes, affecting native fauna composition and species richness. Ants are important organism of soil biota in tropical forests, mainly for their ecological attributes and their remarkable abundance. We investigated the effects of habitat loss by livestock farming on the richness and composition of ground-dwelling ants in the Brazilian Amazon. Ants were captured in five areas of secondary forests and pastures using pitfall traps for 48 h. Our results showed that the ant richness did not differ between habitats (p = 0.89). However, the species composition was different, resulting in two segregated clusters: one formed by forest areas and one by those of pasture. An indicator species analysis underscored the occurrence of three species that can be considered typical of the secondary forest, while a subset of four species from pasture, which probably tolerate land-use disturbance by livestock farming. Our results suggest the importance of maintaining secondary forests for biodiversity conservation and that livestock farming directly affects the taxonomic composition of ant species in the Amazonian biome.

Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) in maize cropping systems in Benin: abundance, damage, predatory ants and potential control

Invasive fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a species native to the Americas which has spread to Africa in 2016. This insect has been reported in Benin as a major pest of maize causing important economic losses and putting at risk food and nutritional security. This study evaluated the damage caused by this pest to maize in different cropping system and management practices. It also assessed predatory ants presence and diversity and their potential in controlling FAW. Results showed that 50% of farmers grow maize in a mixed cropping systems in association with sorghum, cassava and cowpea and also used biopesticides. FAW larval population and damage in maize fields varied accros villages. Surprinsingly FAW larval population was higher in maize field sprayed with insecticides than untreated field. Seven species of predatory ants were recorded in maize field. Ants' population was higher in untreated field (1043 ants per hectare) than treated field (806 ants per hectare). In the laboratory, ants species exhibits great predatory potential. Further studies are needed to discuss uses of ants in FAW management in Benin.

Landscape and agri-environmental scheme effects on ant communities in cereal croplands of central Spain

Agri-environmental schemes (AES) of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) aims at reversing the negative effects of agricultural intensification on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Landscape context may modulate, and even constraint, AES effectiveness. We evaluate AES effectiveness on ant abundance, diversity and community composition. Ants are an ecologically dominant group whose response to conservation efforts in farmland has been rarely evaluated, despite its role in weed control, particularly in Mediterranean farmland.Ants were sampled in the edge and in the centre of paired cereal fields, managed with and without AES in three study areas along a landscape complexity gradient. AES application had no significant effects on ant species richness or ant community composition. Richness increased in fields and landscapes with higher amounts of complex edges and decreased towards the centre of the fields. Specialist granivorous ants (harvester ants, Messor spp.) were the most abundant. Abundance of foraging ants increased with the amount of complex edges around fields and in the landscape. AES application increased ant abundance close to field edges but not in field centers. AES fields had less specialist granivorous foraging in their centers than in control field centers.Ant communities in Mediterranean cereal cropland were mostly constrained by the availability of complex edges, needed for nest building. AES increased the abundance of foraging ants, mostly specialist harvester ants, and its potential service of weed control, but close to field edges mainly. Measures promoting the abundance of stable edges rather than of ephemeral headlands in the landscape are essential to enhance the potential of AES for increasing ant-mediated ecosystem services of weed control.

Shade‐growing practices lessen the impact of coffee plantations on multiple dimensions of ant diversity

Abstract Land use management influence changes in biodiversity beyond the targeted species. Management practices in coffee plantations have shifted from coffee growing below accompanying (shade) trees, to intensified monocultures in which coffee grows fully exposed to the sun. Anthropogenic disturbance causes changes in species composition relative to adjacent natural patches and reduces their biotic heterogeneity. Here, we assessed the impact of coffee plantation management practices on the taxonomical, phylogenetic and functional composition of ant communities, an ecologically dominant group and crucial biological pest controller in these agroecosystems. We hypothesized that shade‐grown coffee plantations would harbour ant communities similar to those of nearby forest patches, but dissimilar to those of intensified monocultures. We surveyed ant diversity in eight shade‐grown coffee farms, eight intensive coffee monocultures and eight forest patches. We used a combination of active and passive sampling methods over two field campaigns spanning 6 months. Our results support our hypothesis for all diversity dimensions. Additionally, ant communities in intensified monocultures were taxonomically and functionally, but not phylogenetically, more homogeneous than those found in forest patches and shade‐grown plantations. Synthesis and applications. Our findings support the idea that practices in shade‐grown coffee plantations buffer the impoverishment of multiple diversity dimensions after forest conversion. Additionally, we identified that leaf‐litter depth and number of twigs mitigate ant diversity loss which, in turn, can favour the presence of potential biocontrol agents. By assessing and integrating multiple biodiversity dimensions into management strategies, farmers and interested parties can minimize future biodiversity and ecosystem service loss.

Forest-pasture shifting alters the assemblages of seed-removing ants in southwestern Brazilian Amazon

Several studies have evaluated the impacts of intensified human activities on biodiversity, but far less effort has been directed toward evaluating the maintenance of ecosystem functions in human-modified landscapes. We investigated the impacts of habitat shifts from forest to pasture on assemblages of seed-removing ants in the southwestern Brazilian Amazon. We specifically addressed the following hypotheses regarding assemblages of seed-removing ants: (i) pasture ant assemblages have fewer species than do forest ant assemblages and are composed of a markedly different set of species; (ii) pasture ant assemblages remove less seeds than do forest ant assemblages; and (iii) forest and pasture ant assemblages contain different sets of key species for seed removal. We collected ants that were baited with artificial seeds in 10 forest areas and 10 adjacent pastures and found that shifting from forest to pasture reduced the number of species of seed-removing ants and altered species composition. We also found that, although seed removal percentage of was higher in pasture, these species were low quality seed dispersers, which was supported by our identification of key species for seed removal. We conclude that when considering the removal of seeds by ants as a proxy to assess the role of biodiversity in ecosystems, it is necessary to consider the importance of each species for removal according to habitat type affinity. Our findings highlight the importance of forest habitat for the effective conservation of ant diversity and their ecological functions in human-modified ladscapes.

Diversity of ants (Hymenoptera:Formicidae) in organic and conventional Arabica coffee plantations in Aceh Tengah Regency, Sumatra, Indonesia

Several ant species are known as predators of coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei, the most damaging pest on coffee plantations. We investigated ant diversity and looked at their role in Arabica coffee plantation in Aceh Tengah Regency, Aceh Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Ants were sampled four times between February and July 2020 using pitfall traps. We found 5 subfamilies and 17 morphospecies of ants collectively in organic and conventional plantations. Eight of them belonged to subfamily Myrmicinae, one species each for subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae and Formicinae, while others belonged to subfamily Ponerinae and Dolichoderinae. The slightly higher ant species composition in conventional coffee might have been caused by the fallen CBB infested berries on the ground that might attract more ant species to come. There was no significant different in each diversity indices calculated for both coffee cultivation, even though the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’) in the conventional coffee was relatively higher. Most of ant species were general foragers and some of them are known as predators of CBB. This study has provided important information regarding ant fauna in coffee plantations locally which is an early step to conserve ant species to be used as biological control agents of CBB.

Contrasting beta diversity of spiders, carabids, and ants at local and regional scales in a black soil region, northeast China

Understanding the factors determining the formation of each community and metacommunity across a landscape is one of the most important ideas in soil animal ecology. However, the variables and parameters that shape soil arthropod communities in agroecosystems have not been resolved. These arthropods can serve as important bioindicators of field management and its sustainability. We sampled five corn plantations in each of three locations across a region spanning 600 km to come up with these determinants of the community structure of ground-dwelling spiders (Erigoninae: Araneae), carabids (Coleoptera: Carabidae), and ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). The analysis of the five fields within each of the three locations represent our local-scale samples, while the comparisons of the 15 sites across all three locations represent the regional scale samples. We tested the hypothesis that in the models we sampled, environmental/soil variables would drive community assembly locally (within location comparisons), but at the regional scale (between location comparisons), climatic and spatial variables would drive metacommunity assembly. The outcomes of our study showed distinct communities at each of the three locations when compared across regions but locally, fields were similar in species composition, as expected. Locally, spatial variables were important but not soil variables, regulated species richness and abundance. Turnover contributed more than nestedness to explain the biodiversity of spiders, carabids, and ants at both the local and regional scales. Neither purely climate variables, nor purely soil or spatial variables were significant enough explanations for the regional scale arthropod community composition. However, spatially structured environmental factors contributed most to explain the patterns supporting our hypothesis. We conclude that biodiversity in this agroecosystem area can be promoted by a mosaic of land uses being encouraged to increase landscape complexity at the regional scale.

Save the survivors: the remarkable ant diversity of the last protected fragment of savanna in Southern Brazil

The Brazilian savanna (Cerrado biome), now reduced to about 173,500 km2 of its original two million km2 range, is one of the most threatened biomes in the world. In the meridional limit of this biome is the Cerrado State Park (CSP), state of Parana, Brazil, the only savanna conservation unit in Southern Brazil. This survey of the arboreal and ground-dwelling ants of the park obtained 136 species in 36 genera and eight subfamilies, an expressive diversity given the size, degree of isolation and location of the park. There was a high stratification of the ant community with a dominance of ground-dwelling species. Camponotus crispulus, Pheidole exigua, and Pheidole scapulata are new records for Southern Brazil. The ponerine genus Mayaponera and 13 species from several genera are recorded for the first time for the state of Parana. The great number of ant species found and the presence of rarely collected elements of the Neotropical ant fauna indicate that this is one of the most diverse areas of savanna in Brazil. However, the CSP is severely threatened by anthropic activities, such as monocultures, cultivation of exotic plants, and livestock. Even more concerning is a recent new law approved by the government of Parana that allows the touristic exploitation of reserves like the CSP by private companies. If an effective conservation effort to preserve the park area is not taken, we will certainly witness the extinction of the last assembly of ants from the Brazilian Cerrado in Southern Brazil, along with other elements of the biodiversity associated with the CSP.

Pervasive and persistent effects of ant invasion and fragmentation on native ant assemblages.

Biological invasions are a leading cause of global change, yet their long-term effects remain hard to predict. Invasive species can remain abundant for long periods of time, or exhibit population crashes that allow native communities to recover. The abundance and impact of nonnative species may also be closely tied to temporally variable habitat characteristics. We investigated the long-term effects of habitat fragmentation and invasion by the Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) by resurveying ants in 40 scrub habitat fragments in coastal southern California that were originally sampled 21yr ago. At a landscape scale, fragment area, but not fragment age or Argentine ant mean abundance, continued to explain variation in native ant species richness; the species-area relationship between the two sample years did not differ in terms of slope or intercept. At local scales, over the last 21yr we detected increases in the overall area invaded (+36.7%, estimated as the proportion of occupied traps) and the relative abundance of the Argentine ant (+121.95%, estimated as mean number of workers in pitfall traps). Argentine ant mean abundance also increased inward from urban edges in 2017 compared to 1996. The greater level of penetration into fragments likely reduced native ant richness by eliminating refugia for native ants in fragments that did not contain sufficient interior area. At one fragment where we sampled eight times over the last 21yr, Argentine ant mean abundance increased over time while the diversity of native ground-foraging ants declined from 14 to 4 species. Notably, native species predicted to be particularly sensitive to the combined effect of invasion and habitat loss were not detected at any sites in our recent sampling, including the army ant genus Neivamyrmex. Conversely, two introduced ant species (Brachymyrmex patagonicus and Pheidole flavens) that were undetected in 1996 are now common and widespread at our sites. Our results indicate that behaviorally and numerically dominant invasive species can maintain high densities and suppress native diversity for extended periods.

A Survey on Diversity of Ants in Lumding

A Survey on Diversity of Ants in Lumding

Ant Diversity and Seasonal Incidence in Agroecosystems at Karaikal

Ant Diversity and Seasonal Incidence in Agroecosystems at Karaikal

Seeking surrogates for taxonomic and functional evaluations of leaf-litter ant faunas

Comprehensive biodiversity inventories are expensive and time-consuming to achieve, especially for groups of megadiverse organisms. One approach to resolve such situations is to utilize biological substitutes, referred to as surrogates. A surrogate should provide meaningful information at a lower cost and/or effort than the original level of resolution. Studies have shown that species richness is often not the best or most appropriate component or predictor of biodiversity. Functional diversity can be used as a measurement of the ecological differentiation between habitats or between biological functions. We evaluated the use of several taxonomic metrics as potential surrogates for leaf-litter ant assemblages distributed in 65 Atlantic rainforest sites. Our goal was to find reliable and economic substitutes for both taxonomic and functional leaf-litter ant diversity and composition. We tested four potential surrogate approaches for taxonomic metrics and three for functional group metrics. Additionally, we also evaluated the time and costs involved. We used a large leaf-litter ant database that comprises 364 ant species, respectively classified into 13 or 26 ant functional groups based on either a general and specific resolution. Subfamily was found to be an unacceptable surrogate for both taxonomic and functional group metrics. Mixed-level and indicator taxa metrics were rated as ‘excellent’ taxonomic surrogates. Mixed-level and genus metrics were rated as ‘excellent’ or ‘acceptable’ functional group surrogates when considering the most general functional resolution, while mixed-level and genus were considered as ‘excellent’ surrogates when considering the more specific resolution. The monetary and time costs to identify ants to genus level were lower than those using indicator taxa and mixed-level metrics. The use of a certain higher taxon functional and taxonomic surrogates allows a reduction of survey and analysis costs while still enabling the analysis of biological diversity from the taxonomic and functional point of view.

Red Imported Fire Ants Reduce Invertebrate Abundance, Richness, and Diversity in Gopher Tortoise Burrows

Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) burrows support diverse commensal invertebrate communities that may be of special conservation interest. We investigated the impact of red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) on the invertebrate burrow community at 10 study sites in southern Mississippi, sampling burrows (1998–2000) before and after bait treatments to reduce fire ant populations. We sampled invertebrates using an ant bait attractant for ants and burrow vacuums for the broader invertebrate community and calculated fire ant abundance, invertebrate abundance, species richness, and species diversity. Fire ant abundance in gopher tortoise burrows was reduced by >98% in treated sites. There was a positive treatment effect on invertebrate abundance, diversity, and species richness from burrow vacuum sampling which was not observed in ant sampling from burrow baits. Management of fire ants around burrows may benefit both threatened gopher tortoises by reducing potential fire ant predation on hatchlings, as well as the diverse burrow invertebrate community. Fire-ant management may also benefit other species utilizing tortoise burrows, such as the endangered Dusky Gopher Frog and Schaus swallowtail butterfly. This has implications for more effective biodiversity conservation via targeted control of the invasive fire ant at gopher tortoise burrows.

An updated checklist of Nepalese ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae).

The location of Nepal in the Central Himalaya promotes high habitat and species diversity. Ant diversity is likely high, but there have been few studies of the diversity and distribution of ants in Nepal. Here we present an updated checklist list of Nepalese ants that includes 128 named species in 48 genera and eight subfamilies. Among these species, 21 species have a type locality from Nepal, nine species are endemic to Nepal, and three are introduced species. We add six new ant records for Nepal, namely Harpegnathos venator, Monomorium pharaonis, Nylanderia bourbonica, Odontoponera denticulata, Polyrhachis tyrannica and Pseudoneoponera bispinosa. The checklist presents distribution records for Nepalese ant species and provides comparisons with the neighboring countries of China and India.

Effect of forest disturbance on ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) diversity in a Mexican tropical dry forest canopy

Abstract1. Ants are the dominant insects in tropical forest canopies. The α and β diversities of ants change in response to forest disturbance. Understanding the response of ants to forest disturbance will help to guide ant conservation and forest management plans, especially in endangered ecosystems such as the tropical dry forest. 2. We analysed ant α and β diversities in 15 fragments (5 mature, 5 disturbed, and 5 secondary) of a tropical dry forest in central Mexico. We identified and measured all of the trees in two transects (10 × 50 m) established within each fragment. Pit‐fall traps were used to sample ants in all of the trees. 3. We identified 52 ant species (from a total of 11,524 individuals). The mature forest presented the greatest quantity of exclusive species and the highest α diversity. Ant composition differed among the mature forest but not between disturbed and secondary forest, and was related to tree size and richness. The β diversity was lower in the disturbed forest, reflecting the cost of biotic homogenization (15%). Among the β diversity components in all three forest types, this diversity was mainly influenced by turnover, while nestedness diminished in the disturbed forest. 4. In the tropical dry forest studied, anthropogenic disturbance homogenises the ant community, probably because the availability of resources is also homogenised, decreasing the α diversities of the canopy ants. Our results show the importance of the conservation of mature forests in terms of maintaining the diversity of canopy ants.

Diversity, Abundance, and Foraging Behavior of Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Scavenging on American Cockroach in Various Habitats of Nasarawa State, Nigeria

Ants play a vital role in removing dead arthropods from the environment. Complex foraging patterns are used by ants to locate food items and overwhelm even larger insects such as cockroach. Consequently, the biotic interaction between the ants and the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana, another home infesting and a vector of major food-borne diseases, may lead to microbial handover and ease the spread of mechanically transmitted human pathogenic microbes. This study was done to determine the diversity and abundance of cockroach-foraging ants in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Ten households were randomly selected from 14 locations: 5 residential communities from three most urbanized areas (Lafia, Akwanga, and Keffi) and 5 rural communities. Four remaining locations were nonresidential from Lafia and Akwanga, respectively. A total of 1,364 ants belonging to three subfamilies (Myrmicinae, Formicinae, and Ponerinae) were collected from 140 households. Pheidole rugaticeps Emery recorded the highest relative abundance (52%) followed by Pheidole decarinata Santschi (16%), Pheidole sp. (17%), Camponotus maculatus (7%), Paratrechina longicornis (7%), while both Crematogaster sp. and Brachyponera sennaarensis recorded the lowest relative abundance (1%). There is a significant difference in the species diversity between the urban and the rural communities. Pheidole rugaticeps, P. decarinata, Pheidole sp., and P. longicornis were more organized in foraging and operating in group by recruiting nest-mate for collecting fragments of dead cockroach. Studies on the epidemiology, conservation implications, and biocontrol potentials of these Pheidole species are recommended.