Dive Tourism Research Articles

A Review of SCUBA Diving Impacts and Implication for Coral Reefs Conservation and Tourism Management

Dive tourism has become important in term of magnitude and significantly contributes to regional economies. Nevertheless, in the absence of proper controls and enforcement, unplanned tourism growth has caused environmental degradation which undermines the long-term sustainability of the tourism industry. The purpose of this paper is to explore factors that contribute to the SCUBA diving impacts on coral and fish communities. This paper explains the causes of a certain event, validating the problem of impacts, defining the core issues and identifies possible causes leading to an effect. The phenomenon of diving impacts on coral reefs is a result of intensive use of dive site over the long-term. The divers can reduce their impacts towards coral reefs through responsible diving behaviors. The causes of cumulative diver’s contacts are more complicated than it seems. In response, this paper proposes the best mitigation strategies that need to be considered for future dive tourism management.

Understanding the resilience of dive tourism to complex change

In this era of rapid multi-scale economic, environmental, and social change the continuation of any given tourism phenomenon into the long-term future should not be taken for granted. The field of tourism studies is largely accounting for the influences of complex change on tourism. However, dive tourism research is lagging behind in this regard. A resilience framework for the study of dive tourism systems is proposed that addresses the need to better account for the threats posed by complex change and the ways dive tourism is responding. The effectiveness of the framework is demonstrated through a case study in the US Virgin Islands. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were carried out with dive operators and government officials. Findings show that perturbations to dive tourism include a lack of support from the larger social–political system, the recent US economic downturn, and an invasive fish species. On the other hand, sources of resilience include dive operators’ formation of self-advocating organizations, recognition of an inexperienced and increasingly frugal client base, and their own contributions to environmental protection. Gaps in the existing theoretical and applied knowledge about dive tourism can be filled through research on (1) social and economic perturbations to dive tourism and (2) ways dive operators respond to perturbations to maintain their resilience.

Global Population Trends and Human Use Patterns of Manta and Mobula Rays

Despite being the world’s largest rays and providing significant revenue through dive tourism, little is known about the population status, exploitation and trade volume of the Mobulidae (mobulids; Manta and Mobula spp.). There is anecdotal evidence, however, that mobulid populations are declining, largely due to the recent emergence of a widespread trade for their gill rakers, which is reflected in increasing Food and Agriculture Organization landings trends. Here, we present results from two dedicated diver surveys, one from the eManta project, which includes summary observations from ninety 10°x10° regions with ∼200–62,000 dives per region, and the other from the Reef Environmental Education Foundation, which includes spatially more detailed observations from 3 regions with ∼4,000–118,000 dives per region. We show that mobulids as a group, which includes eleven species, have globally and regionally restricted distributions, typically have low sighting frequency (<1% of dives) and aggregate in only a few locations. Of the regions surveyed by divers, almost half (47%) report declining mobulid sightings over the last decade. Divers indicate that although mobulid ecotourism occurs in many regions (45% of those reported, n = 41) they are considered protected in only 32% of the regions. Mobulids being fished or sold in local markets were reported from 16% and 12% of regions, respectively, with most being adjacent to mobulid abundance hotspot and ecotourism regions (e.g. Sri Lanka, Indonesia, east Africa). Identification of regions where ecotourism and exploitation are at odds could help prioritize conservation efforts. Vulnerability analysis, using life history characteristics, indicates that Manta spp. are vulnerable to exploitation, tolerating only low fishing mortality rates; data limitations prohibited such analysis for Mobula spp. Our analyses support previous studies in showing the need for improved conservation and monitoring efforts, and suggest that international and enforceable management policies are required to prevent further population decline.

Health‐Related Adverse Events and Associated Factors in Recreational Divers With Different Certification Levels

There is a paucity of research on diving-related health issues and associated factors. This study aimed to examine the health problems encountered during diving and to ascertain the factors associated with adverse events. The sample of this descriptive study consisted of 132 recreational divers from diving schools in Ankara. The researchers collected the data using a questionnaire developed according to the relevant literature. Diving-related health issues including barotraumas, nitrogen narcosis, and decompression sickness were mostly dependent on depth. The divers with higher certification levels witnessed diving-related adverse events more frequently and a significant increase in health problems with greater depth attained (p < 0.05). More experienced divers with longer duration of diving (p < 0.05) and greater number of dives reported more health problems associated with diving between 41 and 65 m. Adverse events did not differ according to diving-related educational features (p > 0.05). The finding implies the importance of adherence to the depth limit of 40 m for recreational divers, being a slow ascend diver, and utilization of a buddy system in order to prevent diving-related adverse events. A data recording system related to diving and regulations particularly for tourist divers in the countries attracting tourists is required.

PERENCANAAN PEMBANGUNAN GUGUS PULAU SAPEKEN SECARA BERKELANJUTAN: PENILAIAN DAYA DUKUNG KAWASAN BAGI PENGEMBANGAN WISATA

The challenge for planning in small island is to ensure efficient use of limited land resources, ensure balanced regional development and balanced use of resources, including natural resources and landscape resources. Based on carrying capacity and small island destination, spatial planning of tourism in Sapeken archipelago which contaian several small island, done by suitability analyze Sapeken archipelago for several tourism. Furthermore,carrying capacity calculated referring Yuliandaetal(2010) to assess how much tourism can commodate without causing disruption the nature. The result suggest Sapeken archipelago have suitable area for dive tourism (164.42 ha); snorkeling (361.56 ha); fishing tourism (1493.38 ha), mangrove tourism (3927.09 ha) dan beach tourism (39.77 ha). Carrying capacity for tourism activities,Sapeken archipelago can commodate 4260 person/day for dive tourism; 3590person/dayfor snorkelling; 14 900people/day for fishing tourism; 321. 000people/day formangrovetoursm;and 199 people/day for beach tourism.

The Green Fins approach for monitoring and promoting environmentally sustainable scuba diving operations in South East Asia

An expansion of coral reef tourism around the world has resulted in growing concern about the associated environmental impacts. Coral reefs, and other coastal habitats, are threatened by a variety of direct and indirect impacts caused by irresponsible snorkelling and scuba diving practices. Green Fins is a conservation initiative that works with dive centres to promote a set of standards for environmentally sustainable dive tourism activities. Through the implementation of the Green Fins Code of Conduct and a robust assessment system to monitor compliance, it aims to reduce the impact of stressors to reefs and associated ecosystems, thereby enhancing their resilience to larger scale threats. A network of Green Fins certified dive centres has been successfully established across the popular diving region of South East Asia. This paper presents an overview of the Code of Conduct and associated assessment protocol, and using the Philippines as a case study, evaluates and demonstrates its effectiveness as a comprehensive and sustainable management tool for the protection of marine ecosystems. The findings from the Philippines indicate that implementation of the Green Fins approach promotes compliance with environmental standards and may significantly reduce the impact of the diving industry on the marine environment.

Dive‐Related Fatalities Among Tourist and Local Divers in the Northern Croatian Littoral (1980–2010)

The aim of the study was to retrospectively analyze diving fatalities occurring in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County (northern Croatian littoral), Croatia between 1980 and 2010 in order to identify differences between fatally injured tourist and resident divers, as well as temporal changes in the frequency of diver deaths. Medico-legal and police reports of 47 consecutive fatal diving cases were reviewed to determine the frequency of death among divers in relation to year and month of death, age, sex, nationality, organization of diving, diving type, and health condition. The majority of victims were foreign citizens (59.6%) most of whom fell victim to scuba diving (70.4%). It was found that 79% of resident divers succumbed during free-diving. The number of diving fatalities increased significantly in the last three decades, especially among free-divers. Of the victims, 93% were males, usually belonging to younger age groups with tourist divers being significantly older than local divers. And 31.9% of divers, mostly tourists, showed signs of acute, chronic, or congenital pathological conditions. Fatally injured foreign divers differ from resident diver fatalities in diving method and age. Tourists are the group most at risk while scuba diving according to the Croatian sample. Occupational scuba divers and free-divers are the group most at risk among resident divers. This study is an important tool in uncovering the most common victims of diving and the related risk factors. It also highlights the problems present in the legal and medical monitoring of recreational divers and discusses possible pre-event, event, and post-event preventive actions that could lead to reduced mortality rates in divers.

Synergy between fractal dimension and lacunarity index in design of artificial habitat for alternative SCUBA diving site

Because dive tourism is now a major commercial use of marine protected areas worldwide, the impact and damage to natural reefs caused by intensive diving are now an important eco-environmental issue. Redistributing divers to substituted natural reefs area is one management strategy recently used to solve the crisis. Lan et al. proposed the first deterministic fractal-based model to address the optimal design problem of habitat patterns in marine environments. Their model not only considered a finite project budget, but also applied the fractal dimension (FD), a commonly used index in landscape ecology, to assess the spatial complexity of the habitat. However, a problem with lots of landscape indices is that different spatial patterns can be realized for any single value of the respective index. The FD is no exception. Specifically, different fractal sets may share the same FD values but have different appearances. To select simulated artificial habitats patterns that meet the needs of decision makers, the overriding objective in this study is to enhance the performance of conventional fractal-based habitat model. Therefore, we introduce the index, lacunarity, as second stage index to characterize different spatial patterns that have the same FD value, since lacunarity has been verified to solve the problem effectively. Its application by ecological engineers and managers as a quantification tool for evaluating fractal-based artificial habitats is also demonstrated.

Impact of Cyclone Yasi on the wreck of the SS Yongala documented by comparative multibeam bathymetry analysis

&lt;p&gt;In February 2011, north Queensland experienced one of the largest and most severe tropical cyclones on record. Category 5 Cyclone Yasi caused substantial structural damage not only on land, but also at sea, including to the historic shipwreck of the &lt;em&gt;SS Yongala&lt;/em&gt;. The &lt;em&gt;Yongala&lt;/em&gt; is of high cultural and natural heritage value and is a major dive tourism attraction. As part of a Queensland Government initiative to document the degree of damage by Cyclone Yasi, changes to its structure were documented by comparative analysis of multibeam bathymetry data of the wreck collected in August 2004 and May 2011 (i.e. pre- and post-Yasi respectively). The storm had a significant physical impact on the c.110m-long wreck. The most pronounced changes occurred in the forward section of the wreck. A 35m section forward of the central deck citadel has rotated around its own axis and the bow dropped more than 5m in depth. Minor deformations were observed at the stern of the wreck and debris was identified on the seafloor around the wreck. The impacts of the cyclone will exacerbate deterioration. It is very likely that the wreck’s hull will rupture in the short- to medium-term, especially if further extreme weather events occur. Together with visual observations, the results of this study will inform ongoing site management by contributing to the identification of key risk areas, and help to establish policies and procedures to address damage to the wreck’s integrity in the future.&lt;/p&gt;

First record of three shark species, Odontaspis ferox, Mustelus albipinnis and Centrophorus squamosus, from the Galápagos Islands

Two shark species, Odontaspis ferox and Centrophorus squamosus, are recorded for the first time at the Galapagos Islands based on one sighting reported by tourist divers and one specimen captured by a local fisherman. The identification of a third shark species, Mustelus albipinnis, previously unidentified and recorded as Mustelus sp., is achieved based on several sightings at the same location.

Evaluating marine protected areas for managing marine resource conflict in Hawaii

Abstract Conflict surrounding commercial fisheries is a common phenomenon when diverse stakeholders are involved. Harvesting reef fish for the global ornamental fish trade has provoked conflict since the late 1970s in the State of Hawaii. Two decades later the state of Hawaii established a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) on the west coast of the island of Hawaii (“West Hawaii”) to protect and enhance the fish resources and alleviate conflict between stakeholders, principally between commercial dive tour operators and aquarium fishers. The perceptions held by these stakeholders on West Hawaii and Maui were evaluated to understand how MPAs influenced conflict dimensions, as the former location had a well-established MPA network designed to alleviate conflict, while the latter did not. This was accomplished by analyzing the following questions: (1) perceptions about the effectiveness of MPAs to alleviate conflict and enhance reef fish; (2) perceived group encounters and threats to coral reefs; (3) willingness to encourage fishing; and (4) value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade. The results indicate the MPAs in West Hawaii were moderately effective for alleviating conflict, encounters between stakeholders occurred on both islands, dive operators strongly opposed commercial fishing and perceived aquarium fishing as a serious threat to the coral reef ecosystem, and polarized value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade confirms pervasive social values conflict. The conflict between these groups was also asymmetrical. MPAs are inadequate for resolving long term conflict between groups who hold highly dissimilar value orientations toward the use of marine resources. Future marine spatial planning and MPA setting processes should include stakeholder value and conflict assessments to avoid and manage tensions between competing user groups.

Recreational diving impacts and the use of pre-dive briefings as a management strategy on Florida coral reefs

Ecotourism often is promoted as an ecologically sustainable activity, but some ecotourism activities negative- ly impact coastal ecosystems. Impacts of intensive diving tourism on coral reefs remain poorly understood, especially in the Florida Keys. We determined patterns of recreational dive frequency, diver behaviour, and coral damage on reefs near Key Largo, and assessed how pre-dive briefings and other factors affect these damage rates. Recreational divers contacted live stony corals ~ 18 times per scuba dive; most contacts deposited sediment onto corals, but also caused abrasion to coral tissues and fracture of coral skeletons. Divers who received pre-dive ecological briefings caused significantly less coral damage than those who did not, and divers with cameras and/or gloves caused the most damage. The proportion of damaged corals increased significantly with the estimated rate of recreational diving on each reef, and the percent cover of live corals decreased. We conclude that current rates of recreational diving in Key Largo are unsustainable, resulting in damage to >80 % of coral colo- nies and reduction of live coral cover to <11 % at heavily- dived sites. We recommend that dive tour operators admin- ister pre-dive ecological briefings to all recreational divers, provide extra briefings to camera and glove users, and employ underwater dive guides who intervene when divers inadvertently damage live stony corals. This study provides a scientific basis to support management of intensive eco- tourism on Florida coral reefs.

Dive Tourism and Local Communities: Active Participation or Subject to Impacts? Case Studies from Malaysia

ABSTRACTDive tourism impacts were examined in three Malaysian islands: Perhentian (backpackers), Redang (package tourism) and Mabul (upmarket dive tourism). Qualitative local participation approaches were applied to investigate whether host communities were merely reactive to dive tourism's impacts.Dive tourism affected many aspects of community life. Besides physical/ environmental impacts (new infrastructure), research found varied economic impacts including employment/business opportunities and differing economic linkages. Participation varied between locations, and obstacles to increased participation were revealed. Mainly negative socio‐cultural impacts were observed with minimal participation in cultural productions (handicrafts, performances). However, positive educational impacts emerged, especially environmental awareness and English language acquisition. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Multistakeholder Values on the Sustainability of Dive Tourism: Case Studies of Sipadan and Perhentian Islands, Malaysia

The impact on the marine environment of the rapidly growing dive tourism industry in less developed countries is increasingly understood, but little research currently exists on its impact on overall sustainability at host sites. This article applies Social Exchange Theory to assess multistakeholders' perspectives of dive tourism for two Malaysian islands: the Perhentians and Sipadan. We argue that multiple interest groups exist within the sites, with heterogeneous attitudes relating to dive tourism. We found that dive instructors (most knowledgeable and engaged) have the most polarized views and clearly identify links between environment, society, and development. Nondive businesses show greater engagement with economic development impact, but may not link this to environmental preservation. Tourists were surprisingly indifferent—highlighting their lack of loyalty to "place" per se or opportunities for alternative travel choices.

Recovery potential and conservation options for elasmobranchs

Many elasmobranchs have experienced strong population declines, which have been largely attributed to the direct and indirect effects of exploitation. Recently, however, live elasmobranchs are being increasingly valued for their role in marine ecosystems, dive tourism and intrinsic worth. Thus, management plans have been implemented to slow and ultimately reverse negative trends, including shark-specific (e.g. anti-finning laws) to ecosystem-based (e.g. no-take marine reserves) strategies. Yet it is unclear how successful these measures are, or will be, given the degree of depletion and slow recovery potential of most elasmobranchs. Here, current understanding of elasmobranch population recoveries is reviewed. The potential and realized extent of population increases, including rates of increase, timelines and drivers are evaluated. Across 40 increasing populations, only 25% were attributed to decreased anthropogenic mortality, while the majority was attributed to predation release. It is also shown that even low exploitation rates (2-6% per year) can halt or reverse positive population trends in six populations currently managed under recovery plans. Management measures that help restore elasmobranch populations include enforcement or near-zero fishing mortality, protection of critical habitats, monitoring and education. These measures are highlighted in a case study from the south-eastern U.S.A., where some evidence of recovery is seen in Pristis pectinata, Galeocerdo cuvier and Sphyrna lewini populations. It is concluded that recovery of elasmobranchs is certainly possible but requires time and a combination of strong and dedicated management actions to be successful.

Forming Scuba Diving Environmental Codes of Conduct: What Entry-level Divers are Taught in Their First Certification Course

Research on dive tourism has focused on diver impacts, predive briefings, and dive master interference. Recognizing diver impacts on marine environments, entry-level certification courses discuss them and encourage low-impact diving; several espouse a code of conduct. Dive tourists, a significant portion of the diving population, are unlikely to move beyond basic certification. It is essential to impart sufficient knowledge for them to form codes of conduct in these courses. Using content analysis, this article examines environmental content across three agencies entry-level manuals. It highlights their environmental messages (positive, missed, and conflicting) and concludes that not all courses impart the knowledge required for divers to form personal codes of conduct.

Dive Tourism in Luganville, Vanuatu: Shocks, Stressors, and Vulnerability to Climate Change

Luganville is a developing dive tourism destination region (DTDR) in Vanuatu, which relies on tourism. This article reports on the shocks and stressors faced by Luganville's dive tourism sector and climate change's exacerbation of these. The study's methodology was based on rapid rural appraisal and case study principles, involving methods of semistructured interviews, group discussions, and personal observations. Data were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach. Key shocks identified include cyclones, earthquakes, effect on demand due to media footage, and changes to international flights. Main stressors were starfish outbreaks and environmental degradation. Unlike the indigenous communities, expatriates show little concern for the potential impact of climate change, presenting response challenges that must incorporate different perspectives to develop effective adaptation options.

Scuba Diving Tourism Introduction to Special Issue

Scuba Diving Tourism Introduction to Special Issue

An examination of recreational divers' underwater behaviour by attitude–behaviour theories

The increasing demand for dive tourism activities has resulted in concerns over scuba divers' incremental impacts on the underwater marine environment. Hence, there is a need to better understand the antecedents of scuba divers' underwater behaviour. This study applied theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and norm activation theory (NAT) of altruistic behaviour in examining the relationship between diving attitude, perceived behavioural control, subjective norms and personal norms (PNs) with responsible underwater behaviour among scuba divers. Using the combination of purposeful and convenience samplings, data were collected from divers (N = 413) who visited the top five most attractive islands in Malaysia. The results supported the use of TPB as a basis for explaining the underwater behaviour of divers. Among the four constructs examined, attitude and PNs were found to be of paramount importance in influencing pro-environmental behaviour. This study also validated the exploratory dimensions that constitute the measurement constructs for scuba diving attitude and responsible underwater behaviour. Scuba diving stakeholders should emphasise continuous education and an integrated programme of marine conservation to enhance divers' attitude and personal commitment towards pro-environmental behaviour. These are crucial for the sustainability of the scuba diving industry.

Consumer satisfaction and services: insights from dive tourism

This article focuses on consumer satisfaction in services within the context of tourism, and the dive tourism industry in particular. It identifies the key elements that certified, experienced recreational divers use to determine satisfaction, and discusses the relative importance of the elements. Thereafter, a framework explaining the formation of diver satisfaction is proposed – and the role of emotion is highlighted above other satisfaction antecedents. The findings have practical and academic implications for the wider realms of tourism and other service industries. This research was conducted in Zanzibar, Tanzania, using a combination of participant observation and face-to-face interviews and illustrates the power of such techniques to reach the core of consumer thoughts, actions, and feelings.