Disturbed Stands Research Articles

Typhoon diverged forest succession from natural trajectory in the treeline ecotone of the Changbai Mountains, Northeast China

Abstract Windthrow is a typical gap phrase disturbance that changes forest composition but rarely alter succession trajectories of a forest stand. Catastrophic windthrow such as typhoons is a large but infrequent disturbance that can have long-lasting effects on forest ecosystems. Whether catastrophic windthrow resets successional pathways of forest ecosystems remains inconclusive. We compared forest structure and regeneration patterns between undisturbed and disturbed stands 30 years after a typhoon event in the treeline ecotone of the Changbai Mountains, Northeastern China. Measurements were made using WorldView-1 satellite imaging and fieldwork in two types of large plots, one located in areas affected by the typhoon event and the other in adjacent undisturbed areas. Results showed that community divergence at landscape scale occurred following the typhoon. In non-wind–disturbed stands, forest development followed the successional pathway of both broadleaved and coniferous trees. By contrast, the late-successional coniferous rather than the early successional broadleaved trees occupied the wind–disturbed stands. The alteration mechanism on the forest succession pathway was that herbs formed tall, dense, and persistent mono-dominant thickets after the typhoon, which inhibited the regeneration of broadleaved trees. In contrast to the common knowledge that forest would return to initial successional stage after catastrophic disturbance, we concluded that catastrophic windthrow, different from gap phase windthrow, altered forest successional trajectory.

Intensive forest management affects bryophyte diversity in the western Pyrenean silver fir-beech forests

Understanding how bryophytes respond to management gradients in temperate forests is an important issue for their conservation and has major implications for forest management. This is especially true for western Pyrenean silver fir-beech forests, where high bryophyte turnover, as well as species loss, has been reported in the last 30years. This study is the first to explore bryophyte diversity patterns across western Pyrenean silver fir-beech forests with different management intensities. Our specific aims were to determine the main drivers of bryophyte richness and turnover and explore which bryophyte species can be used as indicators of management intensity. The effect of management was assessed on the overall bryophyte diversity as well as on the bryophyte groups based on taxonomy, life cycle strategy, sensitivity to forest management intensity and habitat preference. Bryophyte diversity was analyzed by generalized linear mixed models and multiple regression analysis on distance matrices. The results suggest that bryophyte richness in the Pyrenean forests is decreasing with intensive forest management. The bryophyte richness decrease on highly disturbed stands can be attributed to a loss of suitable microhabitats, such as large trees. Elevational gradient, as a proxy of climatic factors, is also an important driver of bryophyte species richness in the studied area. Long-lived and epiphytic bryophytes decreased on steep slopes. Turnover was driven by elevation and percentage of large gaps, which might be linked with forest management. The results also suggest that Dierssen's classification of bryophytes regarding sensitivity to forest management is not suitable for the evaluation of the effects of forest management in the studied region. Our main recommendation for bryophyte conservation is to avoid intensive forest management and to minimize the forest practices in steep slopes which are prone to soil erosion.

Nutritional diagnoses of oriental beech trees in damaged Caspian forest sites, using the diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS)

Oriental beech established in the Hyrcanian forests, is a valuable tree whose habitats are constantly exposed to destructive factors which change the nutritional status of soil and leaves. Analysis of foliar elements is a commonly used method for studying tree nutrient status that indicates site's quality. Foliar analysis of beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) was carried out in Kojour (Mazandaran) in order to assess the nutritional balance of trees in a damaged forest site (a direct result of livestock grazing and anthropogenic perturbations). Sunny leaves of dominant trees were taken in August and foliar concentration of macroelements, N, P, Ca, K and Mg were measured. The diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS) analysis was applied for evaluating the nutritional state. The results showed deficiency with K and P in disturbed stands. Nutrient Balance Index (NBI) indicated imbalance in nutrient status. These results suggest the usefulness of DRIS for foliar tissue analysis as an indicator of nutritional status and elemental stress in natural forests.

Composition and importance value of tree-families in undisturbed and disturbed moist tropical forest of eastern Nepal

Tropical forest disturbances have reduced the tree species diversity and hereby, the ecosystem services provided by them. Present study was carried out to understand the status of tree-families in terms of their dominance in the undisturbed and disturbed stands of moist tropical forest in eastern Nepal. As per the result, the dominant family in both the forest was Dipterocarpaceae, with family importance value of 53.6 and 53.9 in undisturbed and disturbed stands, respectively. The second dominant family in both forest stands was Rubiaceae.

Three phases of changes in carabid assemblages during secondary succession in a pine forest disturbed by windthrow – results from the first 10 years of observations

AbstractA windthrow disturbance alters the functioning and structure of a forest ecosystem and causes substantial economic losses.A 10‐year pitfall study of carabid assemblages (Coleoptera, Carabidae) was carried out in pine stands disturbed by windthrow (Pisz Forest, North Poland) in the first year after the disturbance, with different classes of severity: severely disturbed stands (canopy cover up to 30%), moderately disturbed stands (canopy cover of 40–60%) and least disturbed stands (canopy cover of 70–90%).Based on the number of carabid species and their ecological traits, I confirmed the hypothesis that the amplitude of changes in carabid assemblages inhabiting severely and moderately disturbed stands would be greater than in the least disturbed stands. Variation in carabid assemblages was also linked to soil pH and to carbon and nitrogen content in the soil.The study confirmed my hypothesis regarding the delayed replacement of late successional carabid fauna by early successional fauna, which was linked to the broken pines lying on the soil, allowing late successional fauna to survive in the first few years after the windthrow.The principal response curve analysis identified three phases of post‐disturbance succession in carabid assemblages: (i) slight changes in the number of species and their ecological traits, lasting for 4 years; (ii) ‘rapid’ changes, lasting for 3 years, involving an increase in the number of species and rapid replacement of late successional carabid fauna by early successional fauna; and (iii) the slow recovery of late carabid successional fauna.

Effect of disturbance on plant species abundance and density distribution in tropical forest of Sunsari district, Eastern Nepal

The disappearance of global tropical forests due to deforestation and forest degradation has reduced the biodiversity and carbon sequestration capacity. In these contexts, present study was carried out to understand the species composition and density in the undisturbed and disturbed stands of moist tropical forest located in Sunsari district of eastern Nepal. Study revealed that the forest disturbance has reduced the number of tree species by 33% and tree density by 50%. In contrary, both number and density of herb and shrub species have increased with forest disturbance.

Forest regeneration in northeastern Poland following a catastrophic blowdown

The aims of the investigation were to (i) quantify the changes in natural regeneration and stand structure, (ii) determine the role of deadwood in the process of regeneration following the disturbance, and (iii) determine the effect of disturbance severity on tree recruitment. The study was conducted in the Szast Protected Forest, which was established after a blowdown in 2002. The results showed that the trees were mainly wind-snapped. The basal area of the slightly disturbed stands increased over time. Herb cover increased, whereas moss cover decreased in 2011. The disturbance severity influenced the density of tree species regeneration, moss and herb ground cover, species diversity, average tree height, tree vitality, and damage caused by herbivores. The density of natural regeneration increased and new species became established after the disturbance. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) was the dominant tree species during the regeneration process except in the severely disturbed stand from which wood had been removed; in this case, birch was the dominant species. Wind disturbance increased species diversity and created a new forest with a particular species structure and trees that varied in age and height. The results of this study will be useful for foresters and policymakers to change the existing approaches to large-scale disturbances in the Polish forests.

Recovery of plant diversity and soil nutrients during stand development in subtropical forests of Mizoram, Northeast India

Singh ShB, Mishra BP, Tripathi SK. 2015. Recovery of plant diversity and soil nutrients during stand development insubtropical forests of Mizoram, Northeast India. Biodiversitas 16: 205-212. The present study assessed the recovery of tree speciesdiversity and soil nutrient dynamics with stand development in subtropical semi-evergreen forest of Mizoram. The study was carried outin two regenerating forest stands following disturbance and one undisturbed forest. Schima wallichii was the dominant species in allstands showing IVI of 63.8, 83.3 and 75.9 in undisturbed, moderately disturbed and highly disturbed stands, respectively. Castanopsistribuloides was co-dominant species in the undisturbed and the moderately disturbed but this species was replaced by Sterculia villosa inthe highly disturbed stand. The shift in position of species and families from undisturbed to highly disturbed stands could be linked withdegree of disturbance. Log-normal dominance-distribution curves in the undisturbed and moderately disturbed stand indicating thestability of community, while short hooked curve in the highly disturbed stand indicates unstable nature of the community. The soilproperties (organic C, total nitrogen, and available phosphorus) increased significantly during the course of stand development, whereas,decrease with the depth in these forest stands.

Discriminating disturbance from natural variation with LiDAR in semi‐arid forests in the southwestern USA

Discriminating amongst spatial configurations and climax size of trees in forests along varying physical gradients from time since last disturbance is a significant component of applied forest management. Understanding what has led to the existing vegetation's structure has important implications for monitoring succession and eco‐hydrological interactions within the critical zone: the near‐surface environment where rock, soil, air, and biota interact and regulate ecosystem services. This research demonstrates the utilities of local indicators of spatial association (LISA) to (1) quantify natural variation in forest structure as derived from aerial Light Detection and Range (LiDAR) across topographically complex landscapes at ecologically relevant scale, i.e., individual trees; (2) map previously recorded but poorly defined forest disturbances; and (3) link scalable topographic indices to observed tree size distributions. We first selected a priori undisturbed and disturbed stands scanned by aerial LiDAR that included: preservation, mechanical fuels treatment, and logging in two similar semi‐arid forest ecosystems. Next, we compared two topographic indices: the topographic position index (TPI) and topographic wetness index (TWI) to climax tree height and two related LISAs: the Getis‐Ord Gi and Anselin local Moran's I. Gi and I measure local spatial clustering, producing z‐scores that represent the significance of each statistic. The tallest trees in each study area were found to be located on negative TPI and greater TWI values (valley bottom positions and higher wetness conditions, respectively). Stands of trees with positive z‐scores (i.e., overstory trees with similarly tall neighbors) were most likely to be located in the a priori undisturbed areas. Disturbed locations, on the other hand, were defined by neighborhoods of negative z‐scores (i.e., shorter trees with short neighbors). Future applications include locating and reconstructing historical disturbances and developing a consistent strategy for characterizing stands for forest inventory monitoring.

The distribution of genetic diversity in the Neofusicoccum parvum / N. ribis complex suggests structure correlated with level of disturbance

Abstract Plants and animals adapted to colonize disturbed sites might also be better invaders, but this phenomenon has not been widely considered in fungi. We investigated genetic diversity and structure amongst isolates of Neofusicoccum parvum , N. cordaticola , N. kwambonambiense and N. umdonicola that coexist sympatrically on a native tree, Syzygium cordatum , across its distribution in South Africa. Species composition varied among stands, with dominance of N. parvum in disturbed stands, and absence in undisturbed stands, where the other species dominated. N. parvum populations from trees planted in urban environments were more genetically diverse than populations from human disturbed stands of S. cordatum . Bayesian analysis clustered N. parvum isolates in three sub-populations, suggesting three sources of origin. These results support the hypothesis that as a generalist N. parvum will dominate human disturbed sites and trees in urban areas, indicating strong potential for invasion, and its spreading from non-native hosts to native S. cordatum , rather than vice versa .

Comparisons of spatial patterns between windthrow and logging at two spatial scales

Windthrow is a dominant natural disturbance in the boreal forest of eastern Canada. To provide the range of variability of a natural disturbance, its spatial distribution and patch metrics at stand and landscape scales have to be considered, together with the characterization of its severity. Our study characterized both partial windthrow (PW) and total windthrow (TW) spatial distributions at the landscape scale and patchiness within affected stands (stand scale). Landscape scale corresponded to three areas of about 5000 ha. Stand scale was the finest scale of analysis and corresponded to each affected stand within landscapes. In addition, windthrow spatial characteristics were compared with spatial characteristics of harvested areas (CUT). At the landscape scale, our results showed that TW stands were more isolated than PW stands and that mean shape complexity of disturbed stands was low, regardless of whether the disturbance was a windthrow or a harvested area. At the affected stand scale, residual trees covered a significantly higher proportion of PW stands than TW stands and CUT. CUT and TW did not share many spatial characteristics at the stand scale. CUT had a significantly higher proportion of complete canopy openness than TW. Our results showed that PW are spatially heterogeneous at both landscape and stand scales. In an ecosystem management context, i.e., a management that reduces the discrepancy between natural and managed forests, our results showed that forest managers could practice a variety of harvesting methods of different intensities.

Effect of Disturbance on Seed Germination and Seedling Growth of Cassia fistula (L.), Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. and Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India

With the aim of restoring the disturbed sites on one of the premier tiger reserve of the country or the only biosphere reserve of the state, the study was planned to investigate the effect of disturbance on seed germination, early seedling growth and adaptation potential of Cassia fistula (L.), Albizia lebbeck (L.) and Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. in Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR), Odisha. The study sites of the biosphere reserve was categorised into disturbed, moderately disturbed and undisturbed stands on the basis of disturbance index. They differ from each other in forest floor light intensities along with other biophysical characters. High light intensity in the forest floor of Disturbed Stand (DS) than Undisturbed Stand (UDS) and Moderately Disturbed Stand (MDS) of the reserve was found suitable towards significantly higher rate of seed germination and seedling growth of the three investigated tree (over storey) species for all growth characteristics measured except S/R ratio. High soil nutrient content and low light intensity in the forest floor of undisturbed stand than disturbed and moderately disturbed stands of the reserve was not suitable for better seed germination and early stage of seedling growth. Moderate light intensity in the forest floor of moderately disturbed stand produced seed germination and seedling growth to come in the second order. All growth characteristic parameters of Albizia lebbeck seedlings had almost the highest values among species in all the forest stands of the reserve. Though Cassia fistula seedlings had lower growth characteristics than others, but its low S/R ratio in all the forest stands evidenced its higher adaptation potential.

Anthropogenic disturbance shapes phylogenetic and functional tree community structure in a subtropical forest

Forests across the world are increasingly affected by human activities, with unmanaged forests often in early- and mid-successional phases after anthropogenic disturbances. In consequence, it is important to obtain a better understanding of these successional dynamics and their implications for the functioning of forest ecosystems. Here, we investigate this issue for a highly diverse subtropical forest in China, as it is particularly relevant here. China naturally harbors large forested areas and much forest biodiversity, but its forests are also subject to strong anthropogenic pressures, with only 2% of its forest remaining undisturbed. We assess how anthropogenic disturbance shapes two important aspects of forest biodiversity, namely phylogenetic and functional community structure. Comparing plots that have not been disturbed within the last 100years, plots clear-cut ∼50years ago, and plots clear-cut ∼50years ago and then selectively cut ∼20years ago, we find that the abundant gymnosperm species which are important pioneer species in southern China strongly affect phylogenetic structure, causing over-dispersion among large stems in disturbed stands. A tendency for decreasingly clumped phylogenetic structure over succession when considering only angiosperms may reflect an initial filtering by disturbance whose legacy decreases during succession. Multi-trait functional structure, which was not significantly affected by gymnosperms, has similar patterns to the phylogenetic structure without gymnosperms. Phylogenetic and functional structure differs among stem size classes, but with partially divergent trends. Functional structure is more strongly linked to a disturbance indicator, the proportion of light-demanding species, than phylogenetic structure. Our results illustrate that past tree harvesting has left strong legacies in the phylogenetic and functional structure of tree stands in a highly diverse southern Chinese forest and thus may also shape their functioning.

Forest lepidopteran communities are more resilient to shelterwood harvests compared to more intensive logging regimes

A common measure of ecosystem resilience is the time course to recovery for a system that has been previously disturbed. The goal of this study was to assess whether forest lepidopteran communities displayed three different forms of resilience following experimental timber harvest. Specifically, I examined whether moth species assemblages returned to pre-logging composition (compositional resilience), species richness (structural resilience), and guild diversity (functional resilience) after forest management. Lepidoptera were sampled from 16 forest stands managed with one of four harvest treatments: no logging, clear-cutting, shelterwood harvests, and group selection harvests. Moths were sampled from all forest stands one year prior to harvest in 2007 and immediately postharvest in 2009-2011. Moth community composition only appeared to be resilient to timber harvest in stands managed with shelterwood methods (15% biomass removed) or in the unlogged stands within managed concession units. Both total species richness and species richness of Quercus-feeding moths also appeared to recover to a near original condition three years post-shelterwood logging. In contrast, moth assemblages in clear-cut stands and group selection stands (80% biomass removed) remained impoverished. Tests of functional resilience suggested that richness of species known to be pollinators was largely unaffected by timber management, and the number of moth species known to feed on herbaceous vegetation doubled in stands logged using group selection methods. Dietary specialists were disproportionately abundant in the unlogged stands postharvest, suggesting that species with more narrow dietary niches have the lowest resilience to timber management. These results suggest that most methods of forest management have short-term negative impacts on woody-plant-feeding Lepidoptera, but that the effects are limited to a few years when the harvest method involves shelterwood cuts. Herbaceous-feeding Lepidoptera appear to quickly colonize stands managed with group selection or clear-cutting, so loss of species richness in stands managed with either of these treatments may be less than predicted based on level of timber being removed. Recovery of moth assemblages in more highly disturbed stands will require longer time periods and techniques such as group selection harvests, where upwards of 80% of the standing bole is removed, may not be consistent with conservation goals.

Human Disturbance Threats the Red-Listed Macrolichen Seirophora villosa (Ach.) Frödén in Coastal Juniperus Habitats: Evidence From Western Peninsular Italy

In Europe, coastal dune systems with Juniperus spp. (Natura 2000 habitat code 2250) are a priority habitat for conservation according to the Natura 2000 policies. Currently, anthropogenic pressure is threatening the biodiversity of this habitat. While the impact of human pressure on animals and vascular plants is already documented, information is still scanty for other organisms such as epiphytic lichens. The main aim of this study is to test the effect of human disturbance on the occurrence and abundance of the red-listed macrolichen Seirophora villosa. We also tested the effect of human disturbance on the whole community of epiphytic lichens in terms of species richness and composition. The study was performed along the coast of Tuscany by comparing both disturbed and undisturbed Juniperus stands according to a stratified random sampling design. Our results provided evidence that in coastal systems the long-term conservation of the red-listed macrolichen S. villosa and its characteristic community composed by several Mediterranean species of conservation concern depends on the maintenance of undisturbed Juniperus habitats. Results also support the possibility of using S. villosa as an indicator species of habitat conservation importance and habitat integrity since its occurrence is predicted on nestedness in term of species composition, assemblages of species poor disturbed stands being subsets of those of richer undisturbed stands.

Influences of anthropogenic disturbances on the dynamics of white birch (Betula platyphylla) forests at the southern boundary of the Mongolian forest-steppe

We investigated the effects of disturbances on the dynamics of white birch-dominated forests at the southern boundary of the Mongolian forest-steppe. Dendroecological techniques were used to assess regeneration patterns and recent mortality trends in three stands with no evidence of recent anthropogenic disturbance (undisturbed) and four stands with evidence of cutting or fire (disturbed). In the undisturbed stands, only one distinct stem establishment was observed in the period between 1910 and 1950, and no establishment has been observed since then. In the disturbed stands, however, high establishment mainly by sprouting was observed in the period between 1960 and 1980. Percentages of standing dead stems were higher in the undisturbed stands than in the disturbed stands. Mean ages at death in the undisturbed stands were ≥70 years old. The high mortality was likely induced by the death of smaller stems due to light competition, whereas the mortality of larger stems was likely the result of tree senescence. In summary, the undisturbed stands seem to be in danger of decline due to a lack of regeneration during the last half of the previous century and recent high mortality rates of older stems, while the disturbed stands may be maintained for the next several decades by the younger cohort established between 1960 and 1980. White birch-dominated forests at the southern boundary of Mongolian forest-steppe have probably relied on relatively short disturbance intervals in the past because of the disturbance-dependent regeneration trait and relatively short longevity of Betula species.

Structure and spatio-temporal dynamics of cedar forests along a management gradient in the Middle Atlas, Morocco

Diameter distribution and temporal and spatial patterns of a Cedrus atlantica forest were studied across a management gradient (undisturbed, logged and highly disturbed) in Ifrane National Park, Morocco. Forest structure and regeneration dynamics showed significant differences among management levels. The diameter distribution in undisturbed and logged stands indicated the presence of few young individuals, and a poor regeneration status in highly disturbed stands. Variance in diameter was larger in natural stands compared to managed ones. There was a seedling establishment pulse during the time period between 1910 and 1990 at three sites, but a lack of sapling and juveniles occurred at undisturbed and logged forests in the last century, which might be attributed to competition between C. atlantica and Quercus ilex. Nevertheless, cedar trees persistently recruited to all forests during the last 50years, but cedar density was significantly higher in the highly disturbed forest areas. Spatial analysis shows a general trend toward aggregation for all species involved. This pattern was observed among C. atlantica trees in undisturbed and highly disturbed stands but was not significant in logged stands. Differences in management may promote variation in stand structure and regeneration dynamics of the subalpine cedar forests along the management gradient in the Middle Atlas, Morocco.

Physical disturbance determines effects from nitrogen addition on ground vegetation in boreal coniferous forests

AbstractQuestionsNitrogen (N) enrichment often appears in combination with land‐use related disturbances. Are there interactive effects between N addition and physical disturbances where N addition increases plant community sensitivity to disturbance?LocationBoreal coniferous forest, Bispgården (63 °00′N, 16 °40′E), central Sweden.MethodsWe tested potential interactive effects between N addition and disturbance by evaluating effects of N fertilization on community composition of forest floor vegetation in clear‐cut (disturbed) and mature (undisturbed) forests. We analysed species composition in 63 forests stands (16 clear‐cut and N‐fertilized, 14 clear‐cut and unfertilized, 17 mature and N fertilized, and 16 mature and unfertilized). Species composition was scored by the point‐intercept method at 200 random points along a 45‐m transect in each stand.ResultsThe N effect on plant community composition was strongly dependent on disturbance caused by clear‐cutting. In undisturbed forests, there were small or no effects on community composition from N addition. In contrast, effects were large in forests first exposed to N addition and subsequently disturbed by clear‐cutting. Effects of N addition differed among plant functional groups. Abundance of graminoids increased (+232%) and abundance of dwarf shrubs decreased (−44%) following disturbance in N‐fertilized stands. For vascular plants, the two perturbations had contrasting effects on α‐ (within stand) and β‐ (among stands) diversity: in disturbed stands, N addition reduced α‐diversity, while β‐diversity increased. For bryophytes, effects of disturbance on α‐diversity were smaller under N addition than ambient N, while neither N addition nor disturbance had any effect on β‐diversity.ConclusionsEffects of N addition on plant communities may be small, short‐lived or even absent until exposure to a disturbance implements full effects of N, highlighting the importance of considering interactive effects with disturbance when evaluating effects of N enrichment on plant community composition and biodiversity.

Assessing the influence of resource covariates at multiple spatial scales: an application to forest-dwelling caribou faced with intensive human activity

Efforts in isolating the relative effects of resources and disturbances on animal-distribution patterns remain hindered by the difficulty of accounting for multiple scales of resource selection by animals with seasonally dynamic drivers. We developed multi-scale, seasonal models to explore how local resource selection by the threatened forest-dwelling woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) was influenced by both broad-scale landscape context and local resource heterogeneity in the intensively managed region of Charlevoix, Quebec, Canada, located on the southern border of the North American caribou range. We estimated resource selection functions using 23 GPS-collared caribou monitored from 2004 to 2006 and landscape data on vegetation classes, terrain conditions, and roads. We found evidence of thresholds in road “proximity” effects (up to 1.25 km), which underscores the importance of including landscape context variables in addition to locally measured variables, and of fitting seasonal-specific models given temporal variation in the magnitude of selection and optimal scale of measurement. Open lichen woodlands were an important cover type for caribou during winter and spring, whereas deciduous forests, wetlands, and even young disturbed stands became important during calving and summer. Caribou consistently avoided roads and rugged terrain conditions at both local and landscape levels. Landscape context fundamentally constrains the choices available to animals, and we showed that failing to consider landscape context, or arbitrarily choosing an inappropriate scale for measuring covariates, may provide biased inferences with respect to habitat selection patterns. Effective habitat management for rare or declining species should carefully consider the hierarchical nature of habitat selection.

Considerations for Rehabilitating Naturally Disturbed Stands: Part 2. Stand Level Treatments and Hydrological Equivalent Clearcut Area

Large wildfires near communities in southern BC, and the extensive outbreak of mountain pine beetle (MPB) throughout pine forests of the BC Interior, have created many new issues for forest managers. A particular concern is managing the cumulative effects of large natural disturbances in combination with forest management activities. In the past, planning for multiple values focused on forest development plans for normal commercial forest harvest in landscapes dominated by mature forest. Now, increasing pressure to recover disturbed stands for biofuels has resulted in multiple overlapping volume-based tenures, and an increased rate and extent of large-scale commercial salvage.