Groundwater Age Distributions Research Articles

Design and calibration of a nitrate decision support tool for groundwater wells in Wisconsin, USA

This paper describes development of a nitrate decision support tool for groundwater wells (GW-NDST) that combines nitrate leaching and groundwater lag-times to compute well concentrations. The GW-NDST uses output from support models that simulate leached nitrate, groundwater age distributions, and nitrate reduction rates. The support models are linked through convolution to simulate nitrate transport to wells. Spatially distributed parameters were adjusted through calibration to 34,255 nitrate sample targets. Prediction uncertainty is illustrated via Monte Carlo realizations informed during calibration. Over 78% of target concentrations were within the simulated range of results from 450 realizations. An example forecasting scenario illustrates that a range of feasible outcomes exist and should be considered when interpreting forecasts for decision making. Uncertainty in forecasting is unavoidable; the intent of characterizing uncertainty in the GW-NDST is to facilitate decision making by increasing insight into the response of nitrate contamination to physical and chemical processes.

The Hidden Hydrogeosphere: The Contribution of Deep Groundwater to the Planetary Water Cycle

The canonical water cycle assumes that all water entering the subsurface to form groundwater eventually reenters the surface water cycle by discharge to lakes, streams, and oceans. Recent discoveries in groundwater dating have challenged that understanding. Here we introduce a new conceptual framework that includes the large volume of water that is estimated to account for 30–46% of the planet's groundwater but that is not yet incorporated in the traditional water cycle. This immense hidden hydrogeosphere has been overlooked to date largely because it is stored deeper in the crust, on long timescales ranging from tens of thousands to more than one billion years. Here we demonstrate why understanding of this deep, old groundwater is critical to society's energy, resource, and climate challenges as the deep hydrogeosphere is an important target for exploration for new resources of helium, hydrogen, and other elements critical to the green energy transition; is under investigation for geologic repositories for nuclear waste and for carbon sequestration; and is the biome for a deep subsurface biosphere estimated to account for a significant proportion of Earth's biomass. ▪ We provide a new conceptual framework for the hidden hydrogeosphere, the 30–46% of groundwater previously unrecognized in canonical water cycles. ▪ Geochemico-statistical modeling groundwater age distributions allows deconvolution of timing, rates, and magnitudes of key crustal processes. ▪ Understanding and modeling this deep, old groundwater is critical to addressing society's energy, resource, and climate challenges. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 52 is May 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Pumping-induced groundwater aging and rejuvenation in aquifer-aquitard systems: A perspective from regional groundwater flow

As an indicator of the renewability of a groundwater basin, the spatial distribution of groundwater age has attracted intensive research. As reported in the literature, 3H measurements in 74 US aquifers showed pumping-induced groundwater rejuvenation, whereas 14C ages in two heavily developed aquifers in France and China indicated pumping-induced groundwater aging. Unfortunately, the mechanisms leading to the seemingly opposite behavior of pumping-induced aging and rejuvenation remain unclear. In this study, we conducted numerical simulations of groundwater age in layered aquifer-aquitard systems under different pumping scenarios and aquitard permeability to show that pumping-induced groundwater rejuvenation and aging always occur simultaneously. Groundwater rejuvenation widely occurs throughout the basin wherever the well is located, whereas groundwater aging mainly occurs to the downgradient parts of the basin. Although groundwater rejuvenation is larger in area, groundwater aging is greater in magnitude, and the magnitude of aging increases with pumping intensity and duration. Moreover, when pumping occurs in the discharge area, aging could occur in almost the entire aquifer to the downgradient of the pumping well, and the magnitude of aging is larger. The large area and large magnitude of aging in the discharge area is a direct result of upward leakage of old groundwater from underlying aquitards/aquifers, which is controlled by the topography-driven groundwater flow. By demonstrating the importance of topography-driven groundwater flow and underlying formations in groundwater age redistribution, this study has implications for determining the bottom of a groundwater flow and solute transport model and interpretation of various tracers.

Estimation of groundwater age distributions from hydrochemistry: comparison of two metamodelling algorithms in the Heretaunga Plains aquifer system, New Zealand

Abstract. Groundwater age or residence time is important for identifying flow and contaminant pathways through groundwater systems. Typically, groundwater age and age distributions are inferred via lumped parameter models based on measured age tracer concentrations. However, due to cost and time constraints, age tracers are usually only sampled at a small percentage of the wells in a catchment. This paper describes and compares two methods to increase the number of groundwater age data points and assist with validating age distributions inferred from lumped parameter models. Two machine learning techniques with different strengths were applied to develop two independent metamodels that each aim to establish relationships between the hydrochemical parameters and the modelled groundwater age distributions in one test catchment. Ensemble medians from the best model realisations per age distribution percentile were used for comparison with the results from traditional lumped parameter models based on age tracers. Results show that both metamodelling techniques predict age distributions from hydrochemistry with good correspondence to traditional lumped parameter model (LPM)-derived age distributions. Therefore, these techniques can be used to assist with the interpretation of lumped parameter models where age tracers have been sampled, and they can also be applied to predict groundwater age distributions for wells in a similar hydrogeological regime that have hydrochemistry data available but no age tracer data.

Vertical distribution of groundwater age in and around the freshwater–saltwater transition zone determined using noble gases and carbon isotopes

The distribution of groundwater ages in coastal aquifers are complicated because of the heterogeneity of the hydrogeology and the mixing of terrestrial and marine water sources. Therefore, multiple studies verifying the groundwater age distribution via borehole surveys are required to better understand groundwater flow in coastal aquifers. This study examined groundwater age distributions in coastal aquifers adjacent to a high-elevation volcano (Mt. Fuji, Japan) by analyzing geochemical and isotopic tracers retrieved from drilling 350- and 160-m-deep boreholes. Brackish groundwater samples collected from the boreholes had high helium isotope ratios, indicating a large contribution of mantle-derived helium. Groundwater ages determined from carbon and helium isotopes indicate that terrestrial groundwater recharged at high elevations flows from the volcano to the coast, mixing with seawater in a transition zone. The groundwater age at the freshwater–saltwater transition zone and the upper part of the saltwater zone is older than that of the underlying saline water. The distributions of the groundwater age in the study area confirm that the conventional groundwater flow system in coastal aquifers is applicable even in deep aquifers. The complex patterns of groundwater age and mixing derived from geochemical and isotopic tracers can guide sustainable use of groundwater resources and the subsurface.

Assessing Vulnerability of Regional-Scale Aquifer-Aquitard Systems in East Gulf Coastal Plain of Alabama by Developing Groundwater Flow and Transport Models

Groundwater vulnerability assessment helps subsurface water resources management by providing scientific information for decision-makers. Rigorous, quantitative assessment of groundwater vulnerability usually requires process-based approaches such as groundwater flow and transport modeling, which have seldom been used for large aquifer-aquitard systems due to limited data and high model uncertainty. To quantify the vulnerability of regional-scale aquifer-aquitard systems in the East Gulf Coastal Plain of Alabama, a three-dimensional (3D) steady-state groundwater flow model was developed using MODFLOW, after applying detailed hydrogeologic information to characterize seven main aquifers bounded by aquitards. The velocity field calibrated by observed groundwater heads was then applied to calculate groundwater age and residence time for this 3D aquifer-aquitard system via backward/forward particle tracking. Radioactive isotope data (14C and 36Cl) were used to calibrate the backward particle tracking model. Results showed that shallow groundwater (<300 ft below the groundwater table) in southern Alabama is mainly the Anthropocene age (25–75 years) and hence susceptible to surface contamination, while the deep aquifer-aquitard systems (700 ft or deeper below the groundwater table) contain “fossil” waters and may be safe from modern contamination if there is no artificial recharge/discharge. Variable horizontal and vertical vulnerability maps for southern Alabama aquifer-aquitard systems reflect hydrologic conditions and intermediate-scale aquifer-aquitard architectures in the regional-scale models. These large-scale flow/transport models with coarse resolutions reasonably characterize the broad distribution and vertical fluctuation of groundwater ages, probably due to aquifer-aquitard structures being captured reliably in the geology model. Parameter sensitivity analysis, vadose zone percolation time, wavelet analysis, and a preliminary extension to transient flow were also discussed to support the aquifer vulnerability assessment indexed by groundwater ages for southern Alabama.

Distribution of tritium-helium groundwater ages in a large Cenozoic sedimentary basin (North German Plain)

The travel time of groundwater plays a major role in the understanding of hydrogeological systems; however, large data sets necessary for regional studies of groundwater age are rare. In this study, a unique large data set of groundwater samples analysed for tritium and helium isotopes collected over the last 20 years from Cenozoic aquifers of the North German Plain is explored. Hereby, the variety of natural and technical influences on the tritium-helium age, including screen depth and length, groundwater recharge rate and climatic effects, are investigated. To a sampling depth of ~40 m below ground level, the median tritium-helium age increases almost linearly with depth, reaching a maximum of 40 years. Below, the portion of older, tritium-free water rises. The tritium-helium ages of the tritium-bearing portion increase only slightly to a maximum of about 46 years. The depth distribution of the tritium-helium age shows a dependency on groundwater recharge rates. Considering the same depth level, younger ages are related to higher groundwater recharge rates as compared to groundwater that infiltrated in areas with lower recharge rates. This is especially observed for shallow depths. Tritium-helium ages younger than 40 years are reflected well in the atmospheric tritium input curves, while deviations from it can be related to anthropogenic influences such as input from nuclear power plants and irrigation with deep, tritium-poor groundwater. The regional distribution for shallow wells indicates increasing tritium-helium ages from west to east, corresponding to decreasing groundwater recharge rates due to the more continental climate in the east.

Molecular diffusion and pore-scale mechanical dispersion controls on time-variant travel time distribution in hillslope aquifers

The travel time distribution (TTD) is a lumped representation of the age composition of water leaving the system. Under nonstationary rainfall injection conditions, the TTD varies with transient groundwater flow, leading to a time-variant TTD. It reflects water and solute exports responding to rainfall. The time-variant TTD, time-variant residence time distribution (RTD) and storage selection function (SAS function) provide fundamental insights into transport and mixing processes in groundwater flow system. This study investigates the control of local-scale mixing (i.e., molecular diffusion and pore-scale mechanical dispersion) on time-variant TTD, RTD and SAS function. A solute transport model is constructed to simulate the time-variant TTD, RTD and SAS function under the influence of local-scale mixing; and a particle tracking model is applied to simulated time-variant TTD, RTD and SAS function without the influence of local-scale mixing. Generally, the TTD and cumulative TTD are found to be more sensitive to local-scale mixing than RTD and cumulative RTD due to the ‘volume effect’. The local-scale mixing smoothens the sharp fluctuations of backward TTD and SAS function. The differences of cumulative breakthrough curves and cumulative backward TTDs between two models deviate to negative value except the tails of the two functions, and this verifies the random velocity theory. The differences of cumulative RTDs between the two models indicate the hydrodynamic dispersion can result in more young water leaving the system and more old water remaining in the storage. Meanwhile, two rainfall time series, one with seasonality and one without seasonality, are applied in the two models separately; it is found that the hydrodynamic dispersion shapes the 2-dimensional backward TTD by increasing its continuity along the 45° direction. Finally, the spatial distribution of mean groundwater age is used to illustrate the local-scale mixing in the aquifer and further explain the controls of local-scale mixing on time-variant TTD, RTD and SAS function mechanistically.

Residence times of groundwater along a flow path in the Great Artesian Basin determined by 81Kr, 36Cl and 4He: Implications for palaeo hydrogeology

Understanding the age distribution of groundwater can provide information on both the recharge history as well as the geochemical evolution of groundwater flow systems. Of the few candidates available that can be used to date old groundwater, 81Kr shows the most promise because its input function is constant through time and there are less sources and sinks to complicate the dating procedure in comparison to traditional tracers such as 36Cl and 4He. In this paper we use 81Kr in a large groundwater basin to obtain a better understanding of the residence time distribution of an unconfined-confined aquifer system. A suite of environmental tracers along a groundwater flow path in the south–west Great Artesian Basin of Australia have been sampled. All age tracers (85Kr, 39Ar 14C, 81Kr, 36Cl and 4He) display a consistent increase in groundwater age with distance from the recharge area indicating the presence of a connected flow path. Assuming that 81Kr is the most accurate dating technique the 36Cl/Cl systematics was unravelled to reveal information on recharge mechanism and chloride concentration at the time of recharge. Current-day recharge occurs via ephemeral river recharge beneath the Finke River, while diffuse recharge is minor in the young groundwaters. Towards the end of the transect the influence of ephemeral recharge is less while diffuse recharge and the initial chloride concentration at recharge were higher.

Characterization of groundwater types and residence times in the Verlorenvlei catchment, South Africa to constrain recharge dynamics and hydrological resilience

• The Verlorenvlei catchment is dominated by four groundwater types that belong to three aquifer systems. • 14 C and 3 H/ 3 He residence time constraints indicate distinctly different age spectrums in the three aquifer systems. • Discrepancies between the 3 H/ 3 He and 14 C results suggests mixing along the flow paths with repeated modern recharge packages entering shallower groundwater systems. • Groundwater resilience to climate change is dependent on understanding these mixing relationships. The Verlorenvlei catchment on the west coast of South Africa is a semi−arid region that is growing progressively more reliant on groundwater due to increased variability in precipitation and increasing agricultural productivity. The groundwater systems have been put under additional stress given the recent 2015–2017 El Ninõ system that led to drought conditions along the west coast of South Africa. This increased reliance puts the natural environment and human dependence on groundwater into direct conflict. Groundwater was sampled for δ 18 O, δ 2 H, δ 13 C, 14 C, 3 H and 3 H/ 3 He ratios in addition to cation and anion concentrations from seventeen production boreholes and two springs in the catchment. Residence times were estimated using tritium and radiocarbon, and in the case of the latter, the Pearson Model has been used to correct for possible carbonate dissolution. Hydrochemistry and residence times of groundwater in the Verlorenvlei catchment have successfully been used to distinguish between the primary−porosity alluvial aquifer, the secondary−porosity Malmesbury shale aquifer (MG) and the fractured rock aquifers associated with the Table Mountain Group (TMG). Groundwater mixing has been identified within the catchment and this plays an important role in the variation in groundwater chemistry and residence time between the aquifer systems. The discrepancy between the calculated radiocarbon and 3 H/ 3 He ages in the TMG and alluvial aquifers has been evaluated using a lumped parameter model that confirms that the TMG is strongly dominated by young groundwaters. Young 3 H/ 3 He residence times calculated for groundwater in the TMG (34–57 years) and alluvial aquifers (34–47 years) implies that these systems are most susceptible to reduced groundwater recharge. Given the interconnected nature of the aquifer systems, reduced recharge rates into the TMG aquifer will decrease groundwater flow to both the alluvial and MG aquifer and this will impact the long−term sustainability of the RAMSAR listed Verlorenvlei estuarine lake and wetlands at the catchment outlet. Future residence time studies should consider using a lumped parameter model (LPM) to calculate the age distribution of groundwater in these aquifers as this would provide additional insight into the sustainability of the groundwater systems.

Using helium-4, tritium, carbon-14 and other hydrogeochemical evidence to evaluate the groundwater age distribution: The case of the Neogene aquifer, Belgium

Apparent groundwater age dating has been proven useful and robust in understanding water origin and mixing processes, particularly when multiple tracers are considered. However, even though now extensively used, the age tracers have not been widely applied in the general practice of flow and transport model calibration. A multi tracer-study was carried out in the Neogene aquifer in Flanders to quantify the apparent age and construct a joint interpretation for the delineation of different groundwater flow systems. This understanding is critical as part of the safety and feasibility studies for the underlying Boom Clay Formation that has been considered as a potential host rock for the geological disposal of radioactive waste. In this study, we combine evidence from tritium/helium-3 (3H/3He), helium-4 (4He) and radiocarbon (14C) dating as well as stable isotopic (δ18O, δ2H) and hydrochemical signatures in combination with particle tracking-based age distributions from the 3D groundwater flow model. The results of the study indicate that mixing of groundwater with young and old fractions occurs predominantly in the central part of the aquifer which is made evident by the coexistence of 3H (pre and post-bomb pulse Era), 14C and 4He in several groundwater samples. The mixing between water of different origin is also supported by the sampled stable isotopic and hydrochemical composition of groundwater. Particle tracking residence time results show an acceptable agreement with apparent ages derived from age tracers for young (≤100 years) and old (>1000 years) groundwater. Groundwater with ages between 100 and 1000 years is likely a mixture of water with young/old fractions and shows the strongest discrepancies between advective model ages and age tracer based apparent ages. On the basis of our findings, we distinguish between three groundwater flow systems in the Neogene aquifer: i) a shallow/local flow system, with groundwater originating from modern meteoric water; ii) a deep/semi-regional flow system, characterized by old groundwater where the presence of 4Herad is significant; iii) a mixed zone of groundwater flow where the recently infiltrated meteoric water mixes with discharging old groundwater. These results have helped us to refine previously proposed conceptual models for the study area and will in the end reduce uncertainties relevant to the potential future geological disposal of radioactive waste.

Over a third of groundwater in USA public-supply aquifers is Anthropocene-age and susceptible to surface contamination

The distribution of groundwater age is useful for evaluating the susceptibility and sustainability of groundwater resources. Here, we compute the aquifer-scale cumulative distribution function to characterize the age distribution for 21 Principal Aquifers that account for ~80% of public-supply pumping in the United States. The aquifer-scale cumulative distribution function for each Principal Aquifer was derived from an ensemble of modeled age distributions (~60 samples per aquifer) based on multiple tracers: tritium, tritiogenic helium-3, sulfur hexafluoride, chlorofluorocarbons, carbon-14, and radiogenic helium-4. Nationally, the groundwater is 38% Anthropocene (since 1953), 34% Holocene (75 – 11,800 years ago), and 28% Pleistocene (>11,800 years ago). The Anthropocene fraction ranges from <5 to 100%, indicating a wide range in susceptibility to land-surface contamination. The Pleistocene fraction of groundwater exceeds 50% in 7 eastern aquifers that are predominately confined. The Holocene fraction of groundwater exceeds 50% in 5 western aquifers that are predominately unconfined. The sustainability of pumping from these Principal Aquifers depends on rates of recharge and release of groundwater stored in fine-grained layers.

Evolution of the groundwater flow system driven by the sedimentary environment since the Last Glacial Maximum in the central Yangtze River Basin

• Fluctuations in the Yangtze River and sedimentary environment control GFS evolution. • Sedimentary evolution caused unconformable distribution of groundwater age in a GFS. • Continuous uplift of discharge base level favors preservation of ancient groundwater. • Holocene fine-grained sedimentary strata led to the stagnation of regional GFS. Understanding the circulation and evolution of groundwater and its control mechanism in the Jianghan Plain, which exhibits the complex sedimentary evolution and a progressively deteriorating groundwater environment, is highly imperative and challenging to promote the practical application of groundwater flow system (GFS) and protect the groundwater resources in the region. The aim of this work was to elucidate the evolution pattern of the GFS in the Jianghan Plain and its underlying mechanism. To this end, the grain size characteristics of sediments, geochronological information, stable isotopes in clay porewater, paleoclimate indicators, and existing groundwater age were analyzed to reveal the sedimentary environment of aquifer systems at the basin scale in the study area. It was found that the sedimentary environment changed from one of deep downcutting during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to a fluvial facies that was rapidly infilled with coarse-grained sediments during the last deglaciation period (LDP), and then to a stable lacustrine facies with fine-grained sediments during the Holocene warm period (HWP). These changes were closely linked to the fluctuations of the Yangtze River. Consequently, the existing GFS pattern in the basin presents an unconformable distribution of groundwater age, indicating that it results from the temporal superposition of groundwater flow controlled by the historical sedimentary environment. Dramatic sea level fluctuations since the LGM have resulted in significant changes in the water level of the Yangtze River. This process has impacted the driving force of groundwater, resulting in the evolution of the GFS from a pattern of a fully developed regional GFS during the LGM to the present pattern of a multi-hierarchy nested GFS.

Krypton‐81 Dating Constrains Timing of Deep Groundwater Flow Activation

AbstractKrypton‐81 dating provides new insights into the timing, mechanisms, and extent of meteoric flushing versus retention of saline fluids in the subsurface in response to changes in geologic and/or climatic forcings over 50 ka to 1.2 Ma year timescales. Remnant Paleozoic seawater‐derived brines associated with evaporites in the Paradox Basin, Colorado Plateau, are beyond the 81Kr dating range (&gt;1.2 Ma) and have likely been preserved due to negative fluid buoyancy and low permeability. 81Kr dating of formation waters above the evaporites indicates topographically‐driven meteoric recharge and salt dissolution since the Late Pleistocene (0.03–0.8 Ma). Formation waters below the evaporites (up to 3 km depth), in basal aquifers, contain relatively young meteoric water components (0.4–1.1 Ma based on 81Kr) that partially flushed remnant brines and dissolved evaporites. We demonstrate that recent, rapid denudation of the Colorado Plateau (&lt;4–10 Ma) activated deep, basinal‐scale flow systems as recorded in 81Kr groundwater age distributions.

Deciphering complex groundwater age distributions and recharge processes in a tropical and fractured volcanic multi‐aquifer system

AbstractGroundwater recharge in highly fractured volcanic aquifers in the humid tropics remains poorly understood. In this region, rapid demographic growth and unregulated land use change are resulting in extensive surface water pollution and a large dependency on groundwater extraction. Here we present a multi‐tracer approach including δ18Oδ2H, 3H/3He dating, and noble gases (NG) within the most prominent multi‐aquifer system of central Costa Rica, with the objective to assess dominant groundwater recharge mechanisms and age distributions. We sampled wells and large springs across an elevation gradient from 868 to 2421 m asl. Our results indicate relatively young apparent ages ranging from 0.0 ± 3.2 up to 43.5 ± 7.6 years within the unconfined aquifer system. Helium isotopes (R/Ra up to 5.4) indicate a dominant signal from the upper mantle and preclude 3H/3He dating in 50% of the samples. Potential recharge elevations (based on NG and δ18O) ranged from ~1350 to 2670 m asl. NG‐derived recharge temperatures ranged from 11.0°C to 19.4°C. Recharge estimates varied from 129 ± 78 to 1605 ± 196 mm/yr with a mean value of 642 ± 117 mm/yr, representing 20.1 ± 4.0% of the total mean annual rainfall as effective recharge. The shallow unconfined aquifer is characterized by young and rapidly infiltrating water, whereas the deeper aquifer units have relatively older water (&gt;60 years). These results are intended to guide the delineation and mapping of critical recharge areas in mountain headwaters to enhance water security and sustainability in the most important headwater dependent systems of Costa Rica.

Paleoclimate Signals and Groundwater Age Distributions From 39 Public Water Works in the Netherlands; Insights From Noble Gases and Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotope Tracers

AbstractKnowing the age distribution of water abstracted from public water supply wells helps to ensure customer trust in drinking water sources and underpin predictions of water quality evolution. We sampled the mixed water of 39 large public supply well fields for major ion chemistry, 3H, 3He, 18O, 2H, 14CDIC, 13CDIC and noble gases and determined the Noble Gas Temperature (NGT). We used a discrete travel time distribution model to quantify the age distributions using 3H, 4He, 14C apparent age and NGT as the 4 distinctive tracers. Helium‐4 and NGT provided information on the older part of the age distributions and showed that the 14C apparent ages are often the result of mixing of waters ranging between 2,000 and 35,000 years old, instead of being discrete ages with a limited variance as previously assumed. The results reveal a large range of age distributions, comprising vulnerable well fields with &gt;60% young water (&lt;100 years) and well fields with &gt;30% paleo groundwater (&gt;25,000 years) and all forms of intermediate distributions. The age distributions match the hydrogeological setting; well fields with age distributions skewed towards older ages appear in the Roer Valley Graben structure, where fluvial and marine aquitards and sealed faults provide protection from recent recharge. Waters from this graben exhibit paleoclimate signals, with a clear relation between NGT (range 3.2–9.3 °C), 4He (up to 3.3 × 10−6 ccSTP/g) and δ18O (range −8.5‰ to −5.9‰VSMOW). Moreover, 3He/4He ratios of these graben waters suggest a certain influx of He from mantle origin.

Groundwater inflow in rivers as a controlling factor to surface water nitrate concentrations and impact of groundwater age distribution on response times for remediation strategies

Diffuse groundwater contamination by intense fertilizer use is a widespread problem in most of the agricultural regions in West-Europe and in many other countries worldwide. As a result elevated nitrate concentrations in groundwater are found, and as groundwater is the source of baseflow into rivers and streams, also surface waters show increased nitrate levels. Flanders in the north of Belgium is no exception and despite restrictions on the fertilizer use and remediation practices initiated in the mid-1990s, and still ongoing, in many stream monitoring points, peak concentrations are measured above the 50 mg/l criterium. In many monitoring stations there is apparently a long delay between the start of the restrictions and effect on water quality. Often this delay is related to high concentrations in the groundwater inflow and long residence and travel times of groundwater feeding the streams. To better understand this behavior and estimate response times a tool was developed that incorporates the main water flows in a typical catchment and considers the effects of varying groundwater ages. This tool is conceived as a parsimonious lumped parameter model, simple and easy enough to be used by many people but still capturing the main mechanisms end processes. In this paper the tool is explained and it is applied on two testcases in Flanders to show its performance.

Groundwater age distribution in a highly dynamic coastal aquifer

Besides other environmental tracers, the use of the 3H-3He method enables the estimation of modern groundwater ages. Widely used in fresh groundwater studies, the combination of tritium (3H) and its stable daughter product tritiogenic helium-3 (3Hetrit), however, has so far only been applied in a few studies to date groundwater in coastal aquifers. The coastal aquifer presented in this study is located at the very young eastern part of the North Sea barrier island Spiekeroog, the so-called ‘Ostplate’, that is characterized by a currently developing freshwater lens. Previously field and numerical modeling studies showed that the groundwater salinity distribution within this coastal aquifer is largely determined by seawater infiltration during storm tides. The main aim of this study was to characterize the groundwater age distribution in a highly dynamic coastal aquifer using the 3H-3He age dating method. In addition, a transient 2-D density-dependent flow and transport model that was calibrated to groundwater heads and salinity was utilized to assess whether measured 3H-3He ages can be reliably simulated despite the mixing of distinctly different and time-variable 3H endmembers, i.e., freshwater and seawater. The numerical calculation of the 3H-3He age distribution, thereby, was based on the simulation of the fictive tracer ‘stable tritium’ (sum of 3H and 3Hetrit) and 3H. Even though the freshwater lens is very young, both field observations and simulation results indicate notably lower ages within the freshwater lens as compared to the age of the lens itself. Simulation results show that frequent seawater infiltration, most importantly during winter storm tides, and discharging water from the freshwater lens lead to a disturbance of the vertical age stratification below the beach. A comparison with direct ages shows that the chosen 2-tracer approach improves system understanding, especially with regard to dispersion effects.

A Mountain‐Front Recharge Component Characterization Approach Combining Groundwater Age Distributions, Noble Gas Thermometry, and Fluid and Energy Transport Modeling

AbstractMountain‐front recharge (MFR), or all inflow to a basin‐fill aquifer with its source in the mountain block, is an important component of recharge to basin‐fill aquifer systems. Distinguishing and quantifying the surface from subsurface components of MFR is necessary for water resource planning and management, particularly as climate change may impact these components in distinct ways. This study tests the hypothesis that MFR components can be distinguished in long‐screened, basin‐fill production wells by (1) groundwater age and (2) the median elevation of recharge. We developed an MFR characterization approach by combining age distributions in six wells using tritium, krypton‐85, argon‐39, and radiocarbon, and median recharge elevations from noble gas thermometry combined with numerical experiments to determine recharge temperature lapse rates using flow and energy transport modeling. We found that groundwater age distributions provided valuable information for characterizing the dominant flow system behavior captured by the basin‐fill production wells. Tracers indicated the presence of old (i.e., no detectable tritium) water in a well completed in weathered bedrock located close to the mountain front. Two production wells exhibited age distributions of binary mixing between modern and a small fraction of old water, whereas the remaining wells captured predominantly modern flow paths. Noble gas thermometry provided important complementary information to the age distributions; however, assuming constant recharge temperature lapse rates produced improbable recharge elevations. Numerical experiments suggest that surface MFR, if derived from snowmelt, can locally suppress water table temperatures in the basin‐fill aquifer, with implications for recharge elevations estimated from noble gas thermometry.

Distributions of Groundwater Age under Climate Change of Thailand’s Lower Chao Phraya Basin

Groundwater is important for daily life, because it is the largest freshwater source for domestic use and industrial consumption. Sustainable groundwater depends on many parameters: climate change is one factor, which leads to floods and droughts. Distribution of groundwater age indicates groundwater velocity, recharge rate and risk assessment. We developed transient 3D mathematical models, i.e., MODFLOW and MODPATH, to measure the distributions of groundwater age, impacted by climate change (IPSL-CM5A-MR), based on representative concentration pathways, defined in terms of atmospheric CO2 concentration, e.g., 2.6 to 8.5, for the periods 2020 to 2099. The distributions of groundwater age varied from 100 to 100,000 years, with the mean groundwater age ~11,000 years, generated by climate led change in recharge to and pumping from the groundwater. Interestingly, under increasing recharge scenarios, the mean age, in the groundwater age distribution, decreased slightly in the shallow aquifers, but increased in deep aquifers, indicating that the new water was in shallow aquifers. On the other hand, under decreasing recharge scenarios, groundwater age increased significantly, both shallow and deep aquifers, because the decrease in recharge caused longer residence times and lower velocity flows. However, the overall mean groundwater age gradually increased, because the groundwater mixed in both shallow and deep aquifers. Decreased recharge, in simulation, led to increased groundwater age; thus groundwater may become a nonrenewable groundwater. Nonrenewable groundwater should be carefully managed, because, if old groundwater is pumped, it cannot be restored, with a detriment to human life.