Distribution Of Archaeological Sites Research Articles

Desert-oasis evolutionary process in the Tarim Basin since ∼ 2.2 ka B.P. during the late Holocene and their environmental implications

Oases, serving as ideal locations for human settlements in arid regions, exhibit extreme sensitivity to regional climatic fluctuations. Consequently, the oasis deposition sediments play a pivotal role in the study of regional paleoenvironmental changes and the exploration of prehistoric human-environment interactions. The YSD and STM sections, both typical aeolian-lacustrine sections located at the edge of the Tarim Basin, were investigated in this study. By analyzing optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating results and grain-size proxy indicators, the environmental evolution patterns in the Tarim Basin since approximately 2.2 ka BP were reconstructed. Additionally, the parametric end-member analysis on the grain-size data was conducted to explore the environmental significance revealed by each end-member. The research findings indicate that: (1) ∼ 2.2–1.8 ka B.P., sediment morphology and grain-size parameters indicate that the climate in the Tarim Basin recorded by the STM section was relatively dry, with rivers gradually receding and frequent sand-drift activities. During the development of the YSD section (∼1.67–1.5 ka B.P.), the environmental conditions in the Tarim Basin transitioned to a relatively humid phase, with the Yarkand River experienced multiple episodes of natural diluvial deposition. The grain-size data of two sections both comprise five sedimentary dynamic components, serving as sensitive indicators of regional humidity conditions and winter monsoon intensity. (2) The oasis development in the Tarim Basin during the late Holocene (particularly refers to between ∼ 2.2 ka B.P. and ∼ 1.4 ka B.P.) exhibits a significant positive correlation with temperature records. (3) Environmental changes and human activities jointly regulate the spatial and temporal distribution and number of archeological sites during the development of both sections. However, the dominance of the two factors varied across different historical periods.

Middle to late Holocene human societies on the eastern margin of the Eurasian Steppe, and their adaptation to environmental changes

The impact of environmental changes on the development of human societies in the Eurasian Steppe is not well understood over the Holocene timescale. In this study, we have reported the phytoliths, grain size, and weight loss on ignition for an aeolian soil profile in the Liao River Basin at the eastern margin of the Eurasian Steppe. The profiles spanned the middle and late Holocene based on AMS 14C dating. By employing the summed radiocarbon probability distribution of archaeological sites and kernel density analysis, the spatial and temporal distributions of human populations and settlements were investigated in order to analyze the rise and fall of ancient cultures. Our findings indicated that the environment in the Liao River Basin underwent three stages of change. From 6700 to 5400 cal yr BP, the climate was warm and humid. The climate suddenly became cold and dry from 5400 to 4900 cal yr BP. The climate fluctuated, with a general tendency towards cold and dry conditions, from 4900 cal yr BP to 1700 cal yr BP. In addition, human societies in the region underwent significant changes, with rapid agricultural development and population growth in the warm and humid environment of the Middle Neolithic (6700–5000 yr BP). However, during the Late Neolithic (5000–4000 yr BP), the living environment suddenly became cold and dry, which limited the development of human society and drastically reduced its population. Nevertheless, the resilience of human societies continued to increase, and in the Bronze Age (4000–2000 yr BP), even in an overall cold and dry living environment, human societies still developed and their population increased sharply. Changes in the East Asia Summer Monsoon were an important driver of cultural change, and our study emphasizes the complex human-environment interactions that shaped societal development on the Eurasian Steppe.

Regional insights into Upper Palaeolithic territorial strategies and the factors of habitat choice in the territory of the Hungarian Central Mountains

The investigation into regional occurrence patterns contributes to a deeper understanding of Palaeolithic habitat exploitation. To explore this, geological, spatial, and environmental factors influencing the distribution of Upper Palaeolithic archaeological sites are studied in the Hungarian Central Mountains, focusing on Szeletian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, and Epigravettian cultures. The study employs a combination of spatial, statistical, classification analyses, and decision tests, including Kernel Density Estimation, Voronoi tessellation, the Dunn-Bonferroni test, Principal Component and Coordinate Analyses, Linear Discriminant Analysis, Random Forest Analysis, to examine the reasons behind the spatial distributions of archaeological sites by cultures. It was found that Szeletians inhabited higher elevation regions in the North Hungarian Mountains than Aurignacians. Voronoi tessellation shows that Gravettian and Epigravettian cultures exhibit a broader spread, with concentrations around the Danube Bend and southern foothills of the Mátra Mountains. Raw material distributions revealed that Szeletian sites are the closest to siliceous raw materials, while Aurignacian sites are the farthest. Principal component analysis reveals moderate separation in habitat selection and indicates that Aurignacians inhabited relatively warmer, less precipitous regions than Szeletians. Linear Discriminant Analysis indicates somewhat overlapping paleoenvironmental conditions in the case of Szeletian and Aurignacian sites; however, it shows the complete separation between Aurignacian and Gravettian sites. Random Forest Analysis results indicate that key separator factors between Szeletian and Aurignacian sites included topographical roughness, while daily energy expenditure and the mean temperature of the coldest quarter played the most crucial roles in separating Aurignacian and Gravettian, as well as Gravettian and Epigravettian sites.

Geospatial Analysis of Archaeological Sites in Ikara Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria

Ikara Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria has rich and diverse archaeological heritage. The research employed geospatial technologies, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing, to analyze and document the archaeological sites in Ikara. The research aims to assess the Geospatial distribution of Archaeological sites in the study area by mapping to locate the Archaeological sites in the study area, determine the pattern of distribution of the Archaeological sites and examine the finds and features in the sites. The research employed a mixed-method approach that combines field surveys, archival research, and geospatial analysis. The research findings show fifteen (15) archaeological sites dispersedly distributed across the Eight (8) wards in the study area with Ikara ward having the highest number of archaeological sites. Also, the dominant cultural materials across the sites are finds in forms of potsherds and features in form of House foundation. The cultural remains on the Archaeological sites are House foundations, mounds, granary, potsherds, iron slag, open grave, stone tools and grinding stones. Based on the findings, dispersed pattern of the Archaeological sites in the study area was deduced from the data collected especially at the southern part of the area of study where the sites are found to be most concentrated. Base on the research findings, it is recommended that further research shall be undertaken using GIS and Remote Sensing Technology for effective Archaeological site discovery, management and preservation.

Point Pattern Analysis (PPA) as a tool for reproducible archaeological site distribution analyses and location processes in early iron age south-west Germany.

Point Pattern Analysis (PPA) has gained momentum in archaeological research, particularly in site distribution pattern recognition compared to supra-regional environmental variables. While PPA is now a statistically well-established method, most of the data necessary for the analyses are not freely accessible, complicating reproducibility and transparency. In this article, we present a fully reproducible methodical framework to PPA using an open access database of archaeological sites located in south-west Germany and open source explanatory covariates to understand site location processes and patterning. The workflow and research question are tailored to a regional case study, but the code underlying the analysis is provided as an R Markdown file and can be adjusted and manipulated to fit any archaeological database across the globe. The Early Iron Age north of the Alps and particularly in south-west Germany is marked by numerous social and cultural changes that reflect the use and inhabitation of the landscape. In this work we show that the use of quantitative methods in the study of site distribution processes is essential for a more complete understanding of archaeological and environmental dynamics. Furthermore, the use of a completely transparent and easily adaptable approach can fuel the understanding of large-scale site location preferences and catchment compositions in archaeological, geographical and ecological research.

Late Quaternary human-environment relationship in the Ganga Plain, India

Here, we present the first-ever attempt to combine palaeoenvironmental records (n = 17) from dated stratigraphic sequences with Geographic Information System (GIS) spatial modelling of archaeological sites (3 phases; n = 306 sites) in the Ganga Plain. The spatial modelling assesses the distribution of archaeological sites and phases on maps showing changing elevation, geology, geomorphology, biome, and rainfall variability within the Ganga Plain, aiming to evaluate the human-environment relationship during the Late Quaternary Period.The compilation of oxygen and hydrogen isotopic composition (δ18O and δD values) and pollen-based environment reconstructions for the last ∼100 ka indicates high rainfall conditions during ∼100–75 ka, ∼10–5 ka, and ∼3.6–1.3 ka. Fluctuating rainfall conditions were observed during ∼75–25 ka and ∼18–15 ka, while the period from ∼25 to 18 ka was the weakest monsoon phase, marking the Last Glacial Maximum. Arid conditions were also observed during ∼15–10 ka and ∼5–3.6 ka. The archaeological review suggests the presence of the Acheulian culture, diverse Mesolithic cultures, and the Neolithic phase marked by advanced agriculture and pottery production in the Ganga Plain. The past environmental analyses show changes in settlement areas correlating with rainfall variations. Frequent climate changes and increasing population density during the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene boundary probably forced prehistoric humans to adopt agricultural practices. The distribution of archaeological sites representing different cultural phases on the modern spatial maps of landscape variability (e.g., elevation, rainfall, geomorphology, and geology) reflects an intricate relationship between prehistoric human settlements, monsoonal rainfall, and climate-driven landform processes.Our assessment suggests that the integration of archaeological sites, geological mapping, vegetation analysis, and palaeoclimate records has the potential to provide valuable insights into ancient human-environment interactions. Therefore, we recommend continued interdisciplinary research in these fields to further enhance our knowledge of prehistoric societies and their responses to changing landscapes and climates in the Ganga Plain.

The genetic diversity in the ancient human population of Upper Xiajiadian culture

AbstractThe West Liao River (WLR) and Yellow River (YR) basins are two major centers of millet farming in northern China. The result from flotation analyses and the spatial distribution of archeological sites indicate that two distinct survival strategies—agriculture and pastoralism were adopted in the southern and western regions of the WLR. Previous studies of ancient populations from the western area of the WLR suggested a correlation between a pastoral economy in the Bronze Age Upper Xiajiadian culture with a decreased genetic affinity with YR farmers. However, the population history of the southern WLR is unknown mainly due to the lack of ancient genetic data. Here we report the genomic data of an ancient individual from the Majiazishan site from the Late Bronze Age southern WLR region associated with Upper Xiajiadian culture. Unlike individuals from western WLR, this individual derived ancestry entirely from Late Neolithic YR farmers. We found a genetic substructure of the ancient human population of Upper Xiajiadian culture, which is consistent with the differences in the subsistence strategies of western and southern WLR. Climate deterioration led to different populations occupying the west and the south, respectively, in the WLR: the nomadic population from the Amur River (AR) in the west and the agricultural population from the YR in the south.

More than 10,000 pre-Columbian earthworks are still hidden throughout Amazonia.

Indigenous societies are known to have occupied the Amazon basin for more than 12,000 years, but the scale of their influence on Amazonian forests remains uncertain. We report the discovery, using LIDAR (light detection and ranging) information from across the basin, of 24 previously undetected pre-Columbian earthworks beneath the forest canopy. Modeled distribution and abundance of large-scale archaeological sites across Amazonia suggest that between 10,272 and 23,648 sites remain to be discovered and that most will be found in the southwest. We also identified 53 domesticated tree species significantly associated with earthwork occurrence probability, likely suggesting past management practices. Closed-canopy forests across Amazonia are likely to contain thousands of undiscovered archaeological sites around which pre-Columbian societies actively modified forests, a discovery that opens opportunities for better understanding the magnitude of ancient human influence on Amazonia and its current state.

Archaeological survey near Tsabong, Kgalagadi District, southwestern Botswana

ABSTRACT The importance of the arid interior of southern Africa for human evolution has come into focus in recent years. However, the current distribution of archaeological sites is limited to the southern margin of the Kalahari sediments in South Africa and to the northern part of Botswana. Surface scatters of archaeological artefacts in other parts of the Kalahari have not been studied systematically despite their potential to test human adaptation to marginal environments in the past. We developed a mobile Geographical Information System (GIS) set-up that allows us to record the archaeological potential of Botswana’s southwestern Kgalagadi district in a rapid and standardised manner. This paper describes five archaeological sites identified through our survey in the wider area around the town of Tsabong. Four of these sites, as well as the majority of identified surface archaeology, belong to the Middle Stone Age based on a first assessment of their lithic typology. A pattern is emerging of particular concentration of these sites on or near quartzite outcrops that are located next to pans. Additionally, six test pits confirmed the high potential for further archaeological investigations in this area using a landscape approach.

Predictive spatial analysis for a critical assessment of the preservation potential of Palaeolithic record in the Leiria region (central Portugal)

Predictive spatial analysis in archaeology refers to the use of geostatistical and computational techniques to assess the relationships between the distribution of archaeological sites and the environmental context. It is increasingly becoming an essential tool in scientific-academic research and rescue archaeology. In the interconnection between these two working contexts, this study aims to explore the advantages of applying an inductive approach, combining Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and geostatistical methods, to identify areas with different degrees of probability for the preservation of the Palaeolithic record in the lower valley of the Lis River (Leiria region, central Portugal). Topographic, hydrographic, geological, and geomorphological data were collected, processed, and integrated into a spatial database, using a GIS, to define the environmental conditioning factors. After applying a spatial multicollinearity procedure, slope, topographical position index, cost-weighted distance to access the watercourses, heat load index and lithology were chosen as input variables for the predictive modelling. Archaeological data, corresponding to the location of known Palaeolithic sites, were also retrieved from the official records. Three models were implemented using regression and multi-criteria methods; for Model 1 a Generalised Additive Model (GAM) was applied, while for Model 2 and Model 3 two distinct combinations of Probabilistic Frequency Ratio (PFR) and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) were used. The spatial cross-tabulation between the obtained predictive maps and the location of the known Palaeolithic sites shows that all the models are acceptable. However, the combinations of PFR + AHP seem to evidence greater efficacy compared to the GAM. Model 3 offers the best performance (90%), followed by Model 2 (87%) and Model 1 (68%). Possible sources of inaccuracies in the input data and the spatial modelling results were critically discussed. Model 3 generated the most robust and reliable predictive prototype map. The maps produced can serve local and regional agencies as a complement and aid decision-making in public policies for spatial planning, and in the conservation/management of cultural heritage. These cartographic representations can provide quicker identification of areas of interest, for example, in the context of rescue archaeology, along with a substantial reduction in time and costs for project promoters, as well as helping in the environmental impact assessments.

تطبيق نموذج تخصيص المواقع في نظم المعلومات الجغرافية لقياس زمن الوصول بين مجمعات النقل العام الرئيسية والمواقع الأثرية القديمة (دراسة حالة بلدية اربد الكبرى)

The aim of this study is to measure and evaluate the easier accessibility between public transport complexes and archeological sites in the Greater Irbid Municipality, to define the nature and connection between the spatial distribution of complexes and ancient archeological sites, to determine their suitability with an intention to find options and ideas for improving their efficacy in order to serve as many residents as possible in the area to access these areas with minimum effort, cost and time and the extent to which these complexes have been covered to access these historical sites. In this research, network analysis of geographic information systems (GIS) was used to calculate the time of arrival and to assess the relationship between antiquities sites and the major public transit stations in the Greater Irbid Municipality. The analysis found that the majority of the surveyed sites in the area are beyond the public transport area and therefore they are impossible to access. The number of areas covered by public transit reached 40% of the overall area of Irbid Municipality. The results also found that the spatial distribution of public transport facilities in the city was random and inconsistent. تهدف الدراسة إلى قياس وتحليل سهولة الوصول بين مجمعات النقل العام والاماكن الأثرية في بلدية اربد الكبرى والتعرف إلى واقع التوزيع المكاني لمجمعات النقل العام وعلاقتها بالمواقع الاثرية القديمه وتقييم مدى ملائمتها من أجل وضع حلول ومقترحات لتحسين فعاليتها لخدمة أكبر عدد ممكن من السكان في المنطقة للوصول إلى هذه الأماكن بأقل جهد وتكلفه واختصارا للكثير من الوقت، وبيان مدى تغطية هذه المجمعات للوصول إلى هذه المواقع الأثرية القديمة. واستخدم في هذه الدراسة التحليل الشبكي في نظم المعلومات الجغرافية لقياس زمن الوصول وإيجاد العلاقة بين الأماكن الأثرية القديمة (Archaeological Places) ومجمعات النقل العام الرئيسية (Transit Stations) في بلدية اربد الكبرى، وتوصلت الدراسة ان معظم الاماكن الاثرية القديمة في المنطقة تقع خارج نطاق خدمة مجمعات النقل العام، وبالتالي تعاني من صعوبة في الوصول إليها وبلغت نسبة المناطق المخدومة بالنقل العام 40% من المساحة الإجمالية لبلدية اربد كما أظهرت الدراسة أن التوزيع الجغرافي لمجمعات النقل العام كان توزيعا عشوائيا غير منتظم في المنطقة.

Predicting the geographic distribution of ancient Amazonian archaeological sites with machine learning.

Amazonia has as least two major centers of ancient human social complexity, but the full geographic extents of these centers remain uncertain. Across the southern rim of Amazonia, over 1,000 earthwork sites comprised of fortified settlements, mound villages, and ditched enclosures with geometric designs known as geoglyphs have been discovered. Qualitatively distinct and densely located along the lower stretches of major river systems and the Atlantic coast are Amazonian Dark Earth sites (ADEs) with deep anthropogenic soils enriched by long-term human habitation. Models predicting the geographic extents of earthworks and ADEs can assist in their discovery and preservation and help answer questions about the full degree of indigenous landscape modifications across Amazonia. We classify earthworks versus ADEs versus other non-earthwork/non-ADE archaeological sites with multi-class machine learning algorithms using soils, climate, and distances to rivers of different types and sizes as geospatial predictors. Model testing is done with spatial cross-validation, and the best model at the optimal spatial scale of 1 km has an Area Under the Curve of 0.91. Our predictive model has led to the discovery of 13 new geoglyphs, and it pinpoints specific areas with high probabilities of undiscovered archaeological sites that are currently hidden by rainforests. The limited, albeit impressive, predicted extents of earthworks and ADEs means that other non-ADE/non-earthwork sites are expected to predominate most of Western and Northern Amazonia.

Modelling Mediterranean oak palaeolandscapes using the MaxEnt model algorithm: The case of the NE Iberia under the Middle Holocene climatic scenario

The Mediterranean Basin is a global biodiversity hotspot, and oak tree species play an important role in it. Since the beginning of the Holocene (∼11.4 kyr BP), the distribution of forests has not occurred uniformly, resulting in diverse types of vegetation landscapes. In this study, we used a maximum entropy algorithm (MaxEnt) to obtain the ecological niche model (ENM) of two sub-Mediterranean oak species, Quercus pubescens Willd. (pubescent oak) and Quercus ilex subsp. ilex (holm oak), both in the present day in the Iberian Peninsula and within a Middle Holocene (8.2–4.2 kyr BP) climatic scenario in the NE Iberian Peninsula. Moreover, we used the locations of Neolithic archaeological sites containing anthracological data to analyze the relationship between human occupations and oak habitats. Our results suggest that the two oaks have responded differently to the climatic conditions that have occurred, and show changes in both potential distributions. The palaeolandscape vegetation map shows a denser vegetation cover in the lowlands and a more open landscape in the highlands, with a higher dominance of Quercus pubescens in the septentrional areas, while Quercus ilex was more restricted to certain coastal areas. Temperature and precipitation factors, mainly seasonal climatic conditions, have had a greater impact on the distribution of vegetation than other factors. We found a good overlap between the ENM of the two oaks and the locations of the Neolithic sites analysed, and determined that the distribution of Neolithic archaeological sites is not random. The Neolithic populations in the study area depended heavily on the resources of the deciduous and evergreen sub- Mediterranean forest, although they also exploited the resources of the mountain pine forest. Neolithic sites distribution suggests that Neolithic human groups were aware of the potential of forests and probably gathered woody resources in their surroundings.

Late Pleistocene-Holocene fluvial records of the Wadi Dishshah: hydro-climatic and archaeological implications (Southern piedmont of the Hajar Mountains, Oman)

In Oman, quaternary climatic fluctuations alternated between humid and arid periods. Humid periods are a key component in landscape evolution and the history of early human-environment interactions, as they allowed for less-restrictive arid conditions by triggering increasing rainfall and fluvio-lacustrine activity. Fluvial archives are of great interest for understanding hydrosystems’ local responses to quaternary regional climatic fluctuations. For the end of the Pleistocene and the Holocene, little data are available in Northern Oman to examine this topic and to compare it with archaeological site distribution and subsistence strategies, in particular with regard to water resources. Here, we will present fluvial records from a small wadi called Wadi Dishshah, located in the southern part of the Hajar Mountains’ piedmont, near the Salakh Arch area. The study of the Wadi Dishshah relies on topographic surveys (aerial survey with drone), geomorphological mapping, morphostratigraphic analyses of natural and excavated sections, malacological analyses and age-dating using OSL and radiocarbon methods. Three phases of aggradation have been identified: the first one between 26,500 cal. BP and 11,300 cal. BP, a second between 6,200 cal. BP and 5,500 cal. BP and a late one around 2,800 cal. BP. The fluvial records from the Wadi Dishshah and its hydro-climatic significance are compared to the distribution of archaeological sites from the Salakh Arch area to discuss the relations between settlement strategies and surface flows. This work is the first case study of late Pleistocene – Holocene alluvial formations in this region of Oman.

Przeworsk tribes in the Western Ukrainian lands in the first centuries AD (according to the materials of funeral sites)

During the 1st-3rd centuries AD, waves of migrations repeatedly swept through the area of present-day western Ukraine. As evidenced by archaeological materials, migrations of Dacian and Przeworsk populations at the beginning of the 1st century AD and during the 2nd century led to the formation of the Lipitsa culture in this region, a cultural unit combining ethnic traits of both communities. Turbulent times of the Marcomannic Wars (166–180 AD) and a new wave of Przeworsk culture migration pushed the Lipitsa population out to Dacia. The distribution of archaeological sites from the late 2nd-3rd cent. AD shows that the Danube region was not the only direction of the Przeworsk tribes’ movement, as they also resettled and colonised new territories in the Volhynia, Podolia, and Polesia regions. Thus, the Przeworsk populations migrating to the western Ukraine in the first two centuries AD blended with the Dacian milieu, contributing to the creation of the Lipitsa culture. The Przeworsk populations of the second wave, which moved to the territory of Ukraine towards the end of the 2nd century and in the first half of the 3rd century AD, became the basis and a major component of a new cultural unit: the Chernyakhov culture of the Late Roman Period.

Spatial development of historical-archaeological foundations in Nineveh Governorate "Nimrud Sub-district a case study"

The study and development of the historical-archaeological foundations have a significant impact on showing the depth of the history and civilization of Nimrud sub-district, in addition to its effective contribution to raising the level of per capita income and attracting national and foreign investment for these cultural foundations. The study of the historical-archaeological foundations and their development in the Nimrud district aims to reveal the cultural potential represented by the historical and archaeological sites enjoyed by the Nimrud sub-district in particular, and the methods of their development and sustainability. Therefore, the research focused on the question about the historical-archaeological foundations that represent one of the pillars of development in the region and how to plan and invest it as an economic and tourist resource for the region, and then reveal the most important obstacles and problems facing its development process in the study area, which represents the research problem. The research is based on the hypothesis that the historical-archaeological foundations that the study area enjoys, along with other foundations, are basic inputs and pillars in the spatial development process, and then the outputs appear as work functions and socio-economic returns for the population of the studied area. The focus was on the geographical distribution of historical and archaeological sites within the Nimrud sub-district in the Nineveh Governorate, which has an area of ​​(474 ​​km2), to study it in a comprehensive and in-depth study and shed light on it, given that what this area has been subjected to in terms of vandalism and destruction is a crime against human heritage.

Point pattern and spatial analyses using archaeological and environmental data – A case study from the Neolithic Carpathian Basin

Computational methods recently gained momentum in archaeological science, particularly affecting large site distribution samples and environmental explanatory parameters. However, quantitative and environmental archaeology are still considered to be limited to a small number of experts and thus less ready to use in general research. Here, we present a case study that integrates computational methods and environmental data into archaeological spatial analyses using Point Pattern Analysis (PPA). We introduce a basic approach to model, visualise, and interpret archaeological site distributions as functions of explanatory covariates in a regional setting of the Neolithic period in the Carpathian Basin. The integration of environmental and socio-cultural variables in a multicomponent analysis allows to distinguish site location parameters and preferences across different chronological periods. Using the code to this article and open-access spatial data, the workflow can be adapted to different regional contexts and chronological periods, making it particularly suitable for spatial pattern comparison.

Holocene landscape evolution in northern Henan Province and its implications for archaeological surveys

AbstractThe heartlands of many of the world's civilizations are situated within alluvial plains, where thick alluvial sediments obscure much of the archaeological record. However, the use of alluvial geoarchaeology remains patchy, particularly in the world's largest alluvial basins. We present results from our geoarchaeological survey at Neihuang County, Henan Province, China, as an example for alluvial geoarchaeological research in the North China Plain and to develop a generalized framework for landscape evolution in the area during the Holocene. We reconstruct the alluvial history of the area around Neihuang County by synthesizing stratigraphic data from seven outcrops into distinct depositional units. Our findings suggest that much of the archaeological record in the North China Plain is buried by meters of sediment or eroded away by the ancient channels of the Yellow River and other tributary streams. Therefore, the presence of buried archaeological sites and river scour in recorded outcrops suggests that the nonsystematic archaeological surveys that are commonly used to interpret cultural changes are not accurate reflections of archaeological site distributions. From the results of this case study, we recommend that archaeologists and paleoclimatologists should exercise more caution when using settlement distribution data gathered through nonsystematic pedestrian surveys to make inferences about ancient processes of cultural change or social dynamics in the North China Plain.

More than Just Clovis: the Broad Impact of Sampling Bias on Archaeological Site Distributions

More than Just Clovis: the Broad Impact of Sampling Bias on Archaeological Site Distributions

When the Land Sings: Reconstructing Prehistoric Environments Using Evidence from Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology, with Examples Drawn from Fluvial Environments in the Nile and Son Valleys

Geomorphic evidence from rivers and lakes can help explain past changes in the locations of archaeological sites as well as environmental and climatic changes in their catchment areas. Examples drawn from the Blue and White Nile valleys in northeast Africa and from the Son and Belan valleys in north-central India reveal how Quaternary climatic fluctuations in the headwaters of these rivers are reflected in changes in river channel patterns downstream as well as in the type of sediment transported. Soils and sediments that contain prehistoric and historic artefacts can be analysed to show the type of environment in which the artefacts accumulated. Beds of volcanic ash may preserve former landscapes and their fossil remains and can provide a synchronous time marker against which to assess changes in the archaeological record. The pattern and tempo of past sea level fluctuations has controlled the distribution of coastal archaeological sites and helps to explain the absence of certain Holocene Neolithic sites in southeast Asia. Disturbance of archaeological sites by plants and animals, especially termites in tropical regions, can affect the stratigraphic and chronological integrity of the site.