Distribution Of Anthocyanins Research Articles

Effects of Temperature on the Pattern of Anthocyanin Accumulation in Seedlings of Polygonum cuspidatum

seedling. Anthocyanin accumulated first in the lower part of hypocotyls and then the site of accumulation gradually extended toward the upper part of hypocotyls when seedlings were irradiated with white light (WL) at 25 C. Etiolated seedlings accumulated anthocyanin only in the upper parts (hook and cotyledons) when the seedlings were irradiated with WL at 5 C. De-etiolated seedlings that had been pre-irradiated with WL for 1 day at 25 C accumulated anthocyanin both in upper and lower parts of the seedlings when the seedlings were irradiated with WL at 5 C. Spectral sensitivity was dependent on the temperature during irradiation. Red light (R), blue light (B), and near ultra-violet light (NUV) induced the accumulation of anthocyanin at 5 C but only NUV was effective in inducing the accumulation of anthocyanin at 25 C. Dichlorophenyl dimethylurea (DCMU) inhibited WL-induced anthocyanin accumulation but did not NUV-induced anthocyanin accumulation at 25 C. However, sucrose promoted NUV action at 25 C, indicating that photosynthesis can promote NUV-induced anthocyanin accumulation. Distribution of phytochrome in etiolated seedlings, that was examined by spectrophotometry, was similar to the distribution of anthocyanin at 5 C. Furthermore, phytochrome remained after 48 hr irradiation with WL at 5 C although phytochrome was rapidly degraded at 25 C.

Optical properties of leaves in relation to anthocyanin concentration and distribution

We have tested the tacit assumption that the location of anthocyanic cells within a leaf affects the quality and quantity of light that is absorbed. Leaf optics are described for Quintinia serrata A. Cunn., a native New Zealand tree that is polymorphic for anthocyanin distribution and concentration. Anthocyanin production enhanced the absorptance of green-yellow wavelengths in proportion to pigment concentration. The reflectance of red light was independent of leaf anthocyanin content. Variation in the location of pigmented cells could not account for differences in leaf optics. The effects of anthocyanin on PAR absorptance were consistent across six further, unrelated species that bore red leaves. We conclude that anthocyanin concentration, rather than its histological distribution, has the greater impact on leaf optical properties.

ANTHOCYANINLESS2, a Homeobox Gene Affecting Anthocyanin Distribution and Root Development in Arabidopsis

ANTHOCYANINLESS2, a Homeobox Gene Affecting Anthocyanin Distribution and Root Development in Arabidopsis

Changes in anthocyanin, flavonoid and phenolic acid concentrations during development and storage of coloured potato (Solanum tuberosum L) tubers

Changes in the anthocyanin concentration of coloured potato tubers have been investigated in cultivars with coloured skin and coloured or white flesh. The biosynthesis of anthocyanins coincided with tuber initiation in cultivars with intensely coloured mature tubers and, after a slight increase as the smaller tubers increased in size, anthocyanin concentrations remained relatively constant. Thus, because tubers were increasing in weight, anthocyanin was being synthesised to maintain a more or less constant concentration. In cultivars with less coloured tubers, the developing tubers remained white for a longer time, with anthocyanin concentrations increasing gradually up to a maximum at a certain tuber weight depending on the cultivar. The concentration of flavonoids was lower than that of anthocyanins but followed a similar pattern. Phenolic acid levels were about twice those of the anthocyanins and reached their maximum at a slightly lower tuber weight than anthocyanins and flavonoids. During cold storage (4°C) the anthocyanin concentration in coloured tubers increased, whereas tubers stored at higher temperatures did not show this increase. The increased colour in cold-stored tubers is discussed in terms of its relationship to ‘cold sweetening’ and the increased concentration of sugars in cold-stored tubers. The distribution of anthocyanins altered during tuber development and also during cold storage. In very small developing tubers the anthocyanins appeared first at the stem end of the tuber whilst the bud end remained white. As the anthocyanin concentration increased during tuber development, it increased over the whole tuber, but the concentration at the stem end was always higher than that at the bud end, until the tuber reached maturity, when the concentration became approximately equal at both ends. After cold storage, tubers had a higher concentration of anthocyanin in the bud end than the stem end; the opposite to that found in developing tubers. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry

Determination of anthocyanins, flavonoids and phenolic acids in potatoes. II: Wild, tuberousSolanum species

The distribution of anthocyanins, flavonoids and phenolic acids in the tubers (skin and flesh), flowers and leaves of eight wild Solanum species has been compared to that found in coloured, cultivated, S tuberosum. Principal component analysis (PCA) of these results revealed a strong association between the various coloured S tuberosum cultivars with distinct differences from the other wild Solanum species. Similarly, PCA showed that there were close correlations between the tuber skin and flesh components. Diseased tubers of S sanctae-rosae showed large increases in levels of flavonoids and phenolic acids. © 1998 SCI.

Flower flavonol and anthocyanin distribution in subgenus Rosa

In a survey of flower flavonoids in 120 taxa from 10 sections of subgenus Rosa, 19 flavonols and six anthocyanins were detected: six kaempferol (K) glycosides; 3-glucoside (in 99% taxa), 3-rutinoside (63%), 3-sophoroside (60%), 3-rhamnoside (70%), 7-glucoside (94%) and 4′-glucoside (4%); and six quercetin (Q) glycosides: 3-glucoside (91%), 3-glucuronide (62%), 3-rutinoside (63%), 3-sophoroside (69%), 7-glucoside (90%) and 4′-glucoside (4%), and seven unidentified flavonols, and two cyanidin glycosides; 3,5-diglucoside (68%) and 3-glucoside (16%) and two peonidin glycosides; 3,5-diglucoside (41%) and 3-glucoside (4%) and two unidentified anthocyanins. From the flavonoid distribution patterns of this analysis, 120 taxa in the subgenus Rosa were divided into three groups as follows. The first group was characterized by much containing of K and Q 3-glucosides, and the absence of K and Q 4′-glucosides. Fifty-nine taxa from six sections ( Gallicanae 32, Chinenses 14, Synstylae 6, Laevigatae 2, Bracteatae 1 and Banksianae 4) were classified into this group. Small amounts of K and Q 3-sophorosides were found in sections Synstylae, Laevigatae and Bracteatae, but they were sporadically present in sections Gallicanae and Chinenses and were absent in sect. Banksianae. In the second group, 55 taxa from three sections ( Caninae 21, Carolinae 7 and Rosa 27) were placed. These plants contained large amounts of K and Q 3-sophorosides and anthocyanins in their petals, but they did not contain 4′-glucosides. The last group contained only one section, Pimpinellifoliae (six taxa). This group was unique in containing a large amount of K and Q 4′-glucosides. Rosa hemisphaerica, however, did not contain any flavonol and anthocyanin except a small amount of K 3-glucoside. By multivariate analyses, three chemotaxonomical groups of subgenus Rosa were confirmed, and interrelationship among these groups was discussed.

Characterization, Quantitation, and Distribution of Anthocyanins and Colorless Phenolics in Sweet Cherries

The anthocyanins and colorless phenolics in 11 cultivars and hybrids of sweet cherries were characterized and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography. All of the dark-colored cherry genotypes were found to contain 3-rutinoside and 3-glucoside of cyanidin as the major anthocyanins and the same glycosides of peonidin as minor anthocyanins. Another minor anthocyanin, pelargonidin 3-rutinoside, was characterized in sweet cherries for the first time. The major colorless phenolics were characterized as neochlorogenic acid and p-coumaroylquinic acid. The total anthocyanin content ranged from 82 to 297 mg/100 g of pitted cherry for the dark cherries and from 2 to 41 mg/100 g of pitted fruit for the light-colored cherries. The neochlorogenic acid ranged from 24 to 128 mg/100 g of pitted cherry and p-coumaroylquinic acid from 23 to 131 mg/100 g, respectively. The relative amounts of the two phenolic acids varied widely across the cherry cultivars examined in this study.

Effects of Skin Fermentation Time on the Phenols, Anthocyanins, Ellagic Acid Sediment, and Sensory Characteristics of a RedVitis rotundifoliaWine

Noble muscadine grapes (<i>Vitis rotundifolia</i>) were harvested at two stages of maturity (optimum, based on full color and flavor development and pH below 3.3, and 14 days later) and either pressed immediately for a blush wine or fermented on the skins for two, four, or six days. Red wines from more mature grapes had greater color intensity and higher levels of anthocyanins, total phenols, and non-polymeric phenols. Wines from the more mature grapes had higher levels of the 3,5-diglucosides of peonidin (Pn) and malvidin (Mv), and lower levels of delphinidin (Dp), cyanidin (Cy), and petunidin (Pt). Maximum color and anthocyanin extraction occurred within four days of skin fermentation with the optimum maturity fruit, but continued through day six with later maturity fruit. However, wines fermented on the skins for four or six days had less muscadine aroma intensity and were more astringent. Skin fermentation time had little effect on the distribution of anthocyanins, although the immediate press wines had lower levels of Dp and Mv and higher levels of Cy and Pn. Total, non-polymeric and polymeric phenol levels increased with increasing skin fermentation time, but the polymeric phenol levels and anthocyanin polymerization were generally low in all wines.

Characterization of the Flavonoids from Petunia ×hybrida Flowers Expressing the A1 Gene of Zea mays

The flavonoids from flowers of transgenic Petunia ×hybrida Vilm. plants containing the Al gene from Zea mays L. were characterized. The A1 gene encodes the enzyme dihydroflavonol reductase and was introduced into a mutant petunia defective for this gene. Control, nontransgenic plants produced flowers that contained ≈ 50 ng anthocyanin/100 mg tissue dry weight. Anthocyanin distribution was 63% cyanidin, 28% delphinidin, and 9% pelargonidin. In contrast, the transgenic plants produced flowers that contained ≈ 500 ng anthocyanin/100 mg tissue dry weight, with 34% as cyanidin, 12% as delphlnidin, and 54% as pelargonidin. The increase in anthocyanin production in the transgenic plants resulted in a corresponding molar decrease in flavonol accumulation.

Distribution of anthocyanins in aceraceae leaves

The distribution of anthocyanins in spring sprouted and/or autumn coloured leaves of Dipteronia sinensis and Acer (119 taxa) was studied. Dipteronia contained four cyanidin glycosides: the 3-glucoside, 3-rutinoside, 3-galloylglucoside and 3,5-diglucoside. Acer contained five cyanidin glycosides: 3-glucoside, 3-rutinoside, 3-galloylglucoside, 3-galloylrutinoside and 3,5-diglucoside, two delphinidin glucosides: 3-glucoside and 3-rutinoside and three unidentified anthocyanins. Both Dipteronia and Acer contained the recently reported cyanidin 3-galloylglucoside. The anthocyanin constituents in spring leaves were more complex than those found in autumn coloured leaves: nine in spring and six in autumn. The presence/absence of the major anthocyanins in the spring sprouted leaves of 111 Acer taxa analysed were grouped into 17 distribution patterns. In the autumn the number of anthocyanin distribution patterns was found to be 11. In Acer, cyanidin glycosides were found in 20 sections and delphinidin glycosides in 17 out of the 21 sections analysed. Although the distribution of anthocyanins showed no clear relations among sections, delphinidin glycosides were mainly found in sections Macrantha, Goniocarpa and Saccharina. There were no differences in the pigment constituents in the species native to different countries, such as A. rubrum in North America and A. pycnanthum in Japan, both containing the same pigments: cyanidin 3-glucoside, 3-rutinoside, 3-galloylglucoside, 3-galloylrutinoside and 3,5-diglucoside.

A common gene regulates pigmentation pattern in diverse plant species

The delila ( del) gene regulates the pattern of red anthocyanin pigmentation in Antirrhinum majus plants. We describe the cloning of the del locus by transposon tagging and show that it encodes a protein with extensive homology to products of the R gene family, which regulates pigmentation in maize. This shows that in spite of the many differences in morphology and coloration between maize and Antirrhinum, the control of pigmentation pattern is mediated by a common regulator. The del and R products contain a region similar to the conserved domain of the helix-loop-helix family of transcription factors. In situ hybridization and RNA analysis show that the expression of del correlates with the distribution of anthocyanins in the flowers. We discuss the implications of these findings for the evolution of regulatory networks.

Anthocyanin Distribution in `Delicious' Apples and the Relationship between Anthocyanin Concentration and Chromaticity Values

Fruit of 10 `Delicious' apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) strains were harvested 149 days after full bloom in 1988. Fruit color was measured at four locations on each fruit at the midpoint between the stem and calyx end with a Minolta CR-200b portable tristimulus calorimeter. Anthocyanin content of corresponding skin disks was determined spectrophotometrically. Significant differences existed among strains in both the amount and distribution of anthocyanin around the fruit. High-coloring strains had a significantly higher anthocyanin concentration at both the blushed and the nonblushed surface when compared to low-coloring strains. A linear regression of anthocyanin content on the ratio of (a*/b*)2 provided an R2 = 0.59; precision was enhanced by using a separate equation for each strain (R2 = 0.80). Regressing log (anthocyanin) on L* using two linear splines yielded an R2 = 0.78. These relationships allow the use of a portable calorimeter for rapid, nondestructive estimation of fruit anthocyanin content in situ.

Genetic and molecular analysis of Sn, a light-inducible, tissue specific regulatory gene in maize.

The Sn locus of maize is functionally similar to the R and B loci, in that Sn differentially controls the tissue-specific deposition of anthocyanin pigments in certain seedling and plant cells. We show that Sn shows molecular similarity to the R gene and have used R DNA probes to characterize several Sn alleles. Northern analysis demonstrates that all Sn alleles encode a 2.5 kb transcript, which is expressed in a tissue-specific fashion consistent with the distribution of anthocyanins. Expression of the Sn gene is light-regulated. However, the Sn: bol3 allele allows Sn mRNA transcription to occur in the dark, leading to pigmentation in dark-grown seedlings and cob integuments. We report the isolation of genomic and cDNA clones of the light-independent Sn: bol3 allele. Using Sn cDNA as a probe, the spatial and temporal expression of Sn has been examined. The cell-specific localization of Sn mRNA has been confirmed by in situ hybridization using labelled antisense RNA probes. According to its proposed regulatory role, expression of Sn precedes and, in turn, causes a coordinate and tissue-specific accumulation of mRNA of structural genes for pigment synthesis and deposition, such as A1 and C2. The functional and structural relationship between R, B, Lc and Sn is discussed in terms of an evolutionary derivation from a single ancestral gene which gave rise this diverse gene family by successive duplication events.

Distribution of anthocyanins in wild and cultivated banana varieties

An examination of bract anthocyanins in 59 banana varieties separated them into five main chemotypes, based upon the presence/absence of methylated compounds and/or the ratio between delphinidin and cyanidin derivatives. The data suggest the occurrence of two centres of domestication for the acuminata cultivars in southeast Asia; the origins of some hybrid cultivars are also discussed.

Inheritance of pigmented tuber flesh in cultivated diploid potatoes

In a genetic study with cultivated diploid potatoes the distribution of anthocyanin to the tuber flesh was found to be controlled by a single dominant allele. The gene symbolPf (pigmented flesh) is proposed. The geneI, which controls the distribution of pigment to the tuber skin, is necessary for the expression ofPf and is closely linked to thePf locus. ThePf gene is a potentially useful genetic marker which does not appear to be associated with any deleterious traits and can be screened for without laboratory equipment.

The distribution of anthocyanins in grape skin extracts of port wine cultivars as determined by high performance liquid chromatography

AbstractThe distribution of anthocyanins in methanolic skin extracts of 16 grape cultivars used for port wine production and grown at five sites in the Douro Valley in Northern Portugal has been assessed by high performance liquid chromatography. Results are confined to the seven most readily separated and identified anthocyanins and are expressed as percentages of their total (88–99% of the total integrated area). Anthocyanins based on malvidin (Mv) predominated. Of these, Mv 3‐glucoside was the major pigment (33–60%), being exceeded by Mv 3‐p‐coumarylglucoside (2–51%) in only two cultivars; Mv 3‐acetylglucoside (1–15%) was consistently the lowest. Peonidin 3‐glucoside (1–27%) was prominent in four cultivars, but delphinidin 3‐glucoside (1–11%), petunidin 3‐glucoside (2–11%) and cyanidin 3‐glucoside (trace‐6%) were of low proportions throughout. The ratio Mv 3‐acetylglucoside/total Mv glucosides appeared characteristic of cultivar, independent of site, and a useful aid to identification of grape cultivars. The coloured pulp of some cultivars contained peonidin 3‐glucoside as a major component, present in greater proportions than in the skin; the percentage of Mv 3‐p‐coumarylglucoside was lower in pulp than in skin. The identities of six of the seven anthocyanins were confirmed by fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry and the structures of the Mv derivatives were determined by nuclear magnetic resonance. The formation of formyl and acetyl anthocyanin artefacts is described.

The distribution and content of anthocyanins in young port wines as determined by high performance liquid chromatography

AbstractThe distribution and content of anthocyanins in young port wines made in three successive years (1981–1983) from up to sixteen grape cultivars grown at five different sites in the Douro Valley in Northern Portugal has been assessed by high performance liquid chromatography. Distributions are confined to the seven most readily separated and identified anthocyanins and expressed as percentages of their sum (78–97% of the total integrated area). Anthocyanins based on malvidin (Mv) predominated (57–94%). Of these Mv 3‐glucoside was the major pigment (43‐76%), followed usually by Mv 3‐p‐coumarylglucoside (1–38%) and then Mv 3‐acetylglucoside (2–18%). Peonidin 3‐glucoside (2–39%) was prominent in a few cultivars but delphinidin 3‐glucoside (1–13%), petunidin 3‐glucoside (2–12%) and cyanidin 3‐glucoside (trac‐4%) were of low proportions throughout. The ratio Mv 3‐acetylglucoside/total Mv glucosides appeared characteristic of cultivar, independent of site and a useful aid to identification. The percentages of Mv 3‐p‐coumarylglucoside were usually lower in ports than in grape skin extracts of the same cultivars. The contents of total anthocyanins in the ports ranged from 143–1080 mg 1−1 (expressed as malvidin 3‐glucoside chloride) and varied according to site and season.

Anthocyanin colourants from elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.). 1. Process considerations for production of the liquid extract

Summary.Elderberry is shown to be a good source of anthocyanins (Acy), having between 2–10 mg Acylg berry. Anthocyanin concentration is very dependent on variety and maturity. Pressing of the berries gives a significant difference between weight distribution (pomace = 25–40% of total weight) and anthocyanin distribution (Acy in pomace = 75–98% of total Acy). Freezing of the berries prior to pressing gives much less pomace weight, with only a small reduction of anthocyanin distribution in the pomace. Tests of various extraction media (HCl acidified alcohols, aqueous HC1 and aqueous citfic acid) showed the highest anthocyanin recovery for aqueous HCl(0.1 M). Multiple extraction tests show that most of the anthocyanin is extracted from the pomace within two to three steps. The influence of extraction time and extraction temperature is discussed.

キンギョソウの花色素に関する研究

Distribution of anthocyanins, especially 3-glucoside, in fifteen marketing cultivars with several pure bred strains of snapdragon was surveyed with chromatographic technique.In some strains derived from “Ball's Supreme Red” an adequate amount of 3-glucoside with 3-rutinoside was found. In fifteen marketing cultivars, a relatively large amount of cyanidin-3-glucoside was found in young petals of florets of two cultivars, and in others cyanidin or pelargonidin-3-glucoside was detected in only trace or no amount. Nevertheless, in such young flower petals of most cultivars and strains tested, 3-glucosides were detected.A quantity of two anthocyanins in each developmental stage of flower petals was investigated in a reddish purple strain containing a relatively large amount of cyanidin-3-glucoside. The results are summarized below.1. The amount of cyanidin-3-glucoside per floret was decreased significantly from the half open stage of petals in all cases, while cyanidin-3-rutinoside had still been increased to senescence.2. The ratio of 3-glucoside/3-rutinoside in palate was higher than in upper lip in all stages.3. Decrease of 3-glucoside and increase of 3-rutinoside in palate after flower opening were obviously slower than in upper lip.From these phenomenon, it was assumed that 3-glucoside would be the precursor of 3-rutinoside in this case.

Rational sequence of tests for pancreatic function.

Of 144 patients with suspected pancreatic disease in whom a 75Se-selenomethionine scan was performed, endoscopic retrograde pancreatography (ERP) was successful in 108 (75%). The final diagnosis is known in 100 patients and has been compared with scan and ERP findings. A normal scan reliably indicated a normal pancreas, but the scan was falsely abnormal in 30%. ERP distinguished between carcinoma and chronic pancreatitis in 84% of cases but was falsely normal in five patients with pancreatic disease. In extrahepatic biliary disease both tests tended to give falsely abnormal results. A sequence of tests to provide a rapid and reliable assessment of pancreatic function should be a radio-isotope scan, followed by ERP if the results of the scan are abnormal, and a Lundh test if the scan is abnormal but the findings on ERP are normal.