Distinct Types Of Information Research Articles

Similarity of brain activity patterns during learning and subsequent resting state predicts memory consolidation

Spontaneous reactivation of brain activity from learning to a subsequent off-line period has been implicated as a neural mechanism underlying memory consolidation. However, similarities in brain activity may also emerge as a result of individual, trait-like characteristics. Here, we introduced a novel approach for analyzing continuous electroencephalography (EEG) data to investigate learning-induced changes as well as trait-like characteristics in brain activity underlying memory consolidation. Thirty-one healthy young adults performed a learning task, and their performance was retested after a short (∼1 h) delay. Consolidation of two distinct types of information (serial-order and probability) embedded in the task were tested to reveal similarities in functional networks that uniquely predict the changes in the respective memory performance. EEG was recorded during learning and pre- and post-learning rest periods. To investigate brain activity associated with consolidation, we quantified similarities in EEG functional connectivity between learning and pre-learning rest (baseline similarity) and learning and post-learning rest (post-learning similarity). While comparable patterns of these two could indicate trait-like similarities, changes from baseline to post-learning similarity could indicate learning-induced changes, possibly spontaneous reactivation. Higher learning-induced changes in alpha frequency connectivity (8.5–9.5 Hz) were associated with better consolidation of serial-order information, particularly for long-range connections across central and parietal sites. The consolidation of probability information was associated with learning-induced changes in delta frequency connectivity (2.5–3 Hz) specifically for more local, short-range connections. Furthermore, there was a substantial overlap between the baseline and post-learning similarities and their associations with consolidation performance, suggesting robust (trait-like) differences in functional connectivity networks underlying memory processes.

Butterfly-Inspired Tri-State Photonic Crystal Composite Film for Multilevel Information Encryption and Anti-Counterfeiting.

Counterfeiting is a worldwide issue and has long troubled legitimate businesses, while nowadays anti-counterfeiting materials and technology are still insufficient to combat the escalating counterfeit behaviors. Inspired by hindwing structure of Troides magellanus, a new kind of anti-counterfeiting material taking advantage of both physical and chemical structures to display multiple optical states is prepared. The chemical units (luminescent lanthanide) are blended with physical units (monodispersed colloidal particles) and mediating molecules, which are then assembled into a photonic crystal structure at room temperature in less than 10s through a new assembly technique called molecule-mediated shear-induced assembly technique (MSAT). The as-prepared photonic crystal films feature three unique optical states, each displaying structural, fluorescent, and phosphorescent color under different lighting conditions, which integrates colors from both physical and chemical origins. Furthermore, by incorporating different luminescent materials into different parts of the photonic crystal pattern, a high-level information encryption system is designed to be capable of carrying three distinct types of information. Thanks to this powerful tool of MSAT, it is now possible to assemble different-sized, even irregular non-spherical units with monodispersed spherical units into high-quality photonic crystal films, which provides easy access to incorporating new features into photonic crystal systems.

Evidence for a visual bias when recalling complex narratives.

Although it is understood that episodic memories of everyday events involve encoding a wide array of perceptual and non-perceptual information, it is unclear how these distinct types of information are recalled. To address this knowledge gap, we examine how perceptual (visual versus auditory) and non-perceptual details described within a narrative, a proxy for everyday event memories, were retrieved. Based on previous work indicating a bias for visual content, we hypothesized that participants would be most accurate at recalling visually described details and would tend to falsely recall non-visual details with visual descriptors. In Study 1, participants watched videos of a protagonist telling narratives of everyday events under three conditions: with visual, auditory, or audiovisual details. All narratives contained the same non-perceptual content. Participants’ free recall of these narratives under each condition were scored for the type of details recalled (perceptual, non-perceptual) and whether the detail was recalled with gist or verbatim memory. We found that participants were more accurate at gist and verbatim recall for visual perceptual details. This visual bias was also evident when we examined the errors made during recall such that participants tended to incorrectly recall details with visual information, but not with auditory information. Study 2 tested for this pattern of results when the narratives were presented in auditory only format. Results conceptually replicated Study 1 in that there was still a persistent visual bias in what was recollected from the complex narratives. Together, these findings indicate a bias for recruiting visualizable content to construct complex multi-detail memories.

Distinctive psychological and social experiences of women choosing prophylactic oophorectomy for cancer prevention

ABSTRACTWomen known to have significantly elevated ovarian cancer risk due to genetic mutations or family history can reduce this risk by surgically removing both ovaries and fallopian tubes (RRBSO, risk-reducing bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy). We used interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) to explore the psychosocial experiences of women who chose RRBSO for cancer prevention. We extended the traditional use of IPA to compare the experiences of women who chose RRBSO for cancer prevention to those of women who underwent similar gynecologic surgery for benign indications. The analysis resulted in three superordinate themes describing women's psychosocial experiences related to RRBSO: (a) psychological facets of cancer risk (b) social support and (c) shared medical decision making. Findings illustrate that women choosing RRBSO for cancer prevention experience heightened psychosocial challenges before and after surgery compared to women undergoing surgery for benign indication. Furthermore, they may need distinct types of information and support from healthcare providers.

Trade-offs in the production of animal vocal sequences: insights from the structure of wild chimpanzee pant hoots

BackgroundVocal sequences - utterances consisting of calls produced in close succession - are common phenomena in animal communication. While many studies have explored the adaptive benefits of producing such sequences, very little is known about how the costs and constraints involved in their production affect their form. Here, we investigated this issue in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) pant hoot, a long and structurally complex vocal sequence comprising four acoustically distinct phases – introduction, build-up, climax and let-down.ResultsWe found that in each of these phases, and for the sequence as a whole, there was a negative relationship between the number of calls produced and their average duration. There was also a negative relationship between the total duration of some adjacent phases. Significant relationships between the fundamental frequency of calls and their number or duration were found for some phases of the sequence, but the direction of these relationships differed between particular phases.ConclusionsThese results indicate that there are trade-offs in terms of signal duration at two levels in pant-hoot production: between call number and duration, and between the relative durations of successive phases. These trade-offs are likely to reflect biomechanical constraints on vocal sequence production. Phase-specific trade-offs also appear to occur between fundamental frequency and call number or duration, potentially reflecting that different phases of the sequence are associated with distinct types of information, linked in different ways to call pitch. Overall, this study highlights the important role of costs and constraints in shaping the temporal and acoustic structure of animal vocal sequences.

Rats Fed a Diet Rich in Fats and Sugars Are Impaired in the Use of Spatial Geometry

A diet rich in fats and sugars is associated with cognitive deficits in people, and rodent models have shown that such a diet produces deficits on tasks assessing spatial learning and memory. Spatial navigation is guided by two distinct types of information: geometrical, such as distance and direction, and featural, such as luminance and pattern. To clarify the nature of diet-induced spatial impairments, we provided rats with standard chow supplemented with sugar water and a range of energy-rich foods eaten by people, and then we assessed their place- and object-recognition memory. Rats exposed to this diet performed comparably with control rats fed only chow on object recognition but worse on place recognition. This impairment on the place-recognition task was present after only a few days on the diet and persisted across tests. Critically, this spatial impairment was specific to the processing of distance and direction.

Law library collection development in the digital age (A monograph published simultaneously as the Legal Reference Services Quarterly, Vol. 21, Nos. 2/3 and 4, 2002). Edited by Michael Chiorazzi and Gordon Russell

The topical issue facing libraries and librarians nowadays is how to collect, preserve and provide information that is needed by its 21st century users. The question of access versus ownership of information seems to be aggravating concerns of the custodians of information in libraries (especially law libraries) as they are faced with two distinct types of information sources that are pertinent to their users, viz. print and digital.

Toward a theory of semantic representation

AbstractWe present an account of semantic representation that focuses on distinct types of information from which word meanings can be learned. In particular, we argue that there are at least two major types of information from which we learn word meanings. The first is what we call experiential information. This is data derived both from our sensory-motor interactions with the outside world, as well as from our experience of own inner states, particularly our emotions. The second type of information is language-based. In particular, it is derived from the general linguistic context in which words appear. The paper spells out this proposal, summarizes research supporting this view and presents new predictions emerging from this framework.

Sea turtles, lobsters, and oceanic magnetic maps

Numerous marine animals can sense the Earth's magnetic field and use it as a cue in orientation and navigation. Two distinct types of information can potentially be extracted from the Earth's field. Directional or compass information enables animals to maintain a consistent heading in a particular direction such as north or south. In contrast, positional or map information can be used by animals to assess geographic location and, in some cases, to navigate to specific target areas. Marine animals exploit magnetic positional information in at least two different ways. For hatchling loggerhead sea turtles, regional magnetic fields function as open-sea navigational markers, eliciting changes in swimming direction at crucial points in the migratory route. Older sea turtles, as well as spiny lobsters, use magnetic information in a more complex way, exploiting it as a component of a classical navigational map, which permits an assessment of position relative to specific geographic destinations. These “magnetic maps” have not yet been fully characterized. They may be organized in several fundamentally different ways, some of which bear little resemblance to human maps, and they may also be used in conjunction with unconventional navigational strategies. Unraveling the nature of magnetic maps and exploring how they are used represents one of the most exciting frontiers of behavioral and sensory biology.

Material-specific long-term memory representations of faces and spatial positions: Evidence from slow event-related brain potentials

Motivated by models that propose material-specific cortical long-term memory representations we expected different topographies of event-related slow waves of the EEG during cued retrieval of two distinct types of information (faces and spatial positions), which are assumed to be processed and stored in topographically distinct cortical areas, i.e., in either the ventral or the dorsal visual pathway. Seventeen participants learned associations either between words and spatial positions or between words and faces. Each word was associated with either one or two positions or faces. In a cued recall test, one day later, participants saw two words and had to decide whether these were linked to each other via an associated spatial position or a face. Slow event-related potentials (ERPs) of the EEG were recorded from 61 scalp electrodes during both acquisition and recall. Response times increased monotonically with the number of faces and positions to be reactivated. Negative slow ERPs showed a comparable topography during anticipation learning and cued recall, but dissociated topographically for positions and faces. The maximum of the negativity increased when items were presented repetitively (compared to the first presentation) during learning, and also with the number of the to-be-reactivated associations during retrieval. These results are consistent with an information-processing model that assumes material-specific cortical representations of episodic memory contents, which are established as localized cortical cell assemblies during encoding, and which are being reactivated during recall.

Subjective and objective dimensions of quality of life in psychiatric patients: a factor analytical approach: The South Verona Outcome Project 4.

Both subjective and objective information is necessary to assess quality of life (QOL). To explore the role of subjective and objective QOL dimensions and their cross-sectional and longitudinal predictors. The relationship between QOL, as measured by the Lancashire Quality of Life Profile (LQL), and demographic variables, diagnosis, psychopathology, disability, functioning, affect balance, self-esteem, service use and service satisfaction was investigated at two points in time, using factor analysis and multiple regression techniques. One subjective and two objective LQL factors with strong face validity were identified. Cross-sectional predictors of the subjective factor were primarily subjective measures; longitudinally, few predictors of this factor were identified. The cross-sectional and longitudinal predictors of the objective factors were primarily demographic and observer-rated measures. Subjective and objective data are distinct types of information. Objective measures may be more suitable in detecting treatment effects. Subjective information is necessary to complete the QOL picture and to enhance the interpretation of objective data.

The Ties That Bind: Creating Number Agreement in Speech

Coherence in language relies in part on basic devices like number agreement. To assess meaning-based (notional) versus form-based (morphological) control of number agreement, we examined how speakers created number agreement for collective nouns, which can carry conflicting notional and morphological number. The agreement targets were verbs and two types of pronouns, produced in the course of a sentence-completion task. Comparisons of the verbs and pronouns indicated that verbs tended to reflect the morphological number of the collective controller, whereas pronouns were more likely to reflect the notional number. This argues that the number features of pronouns may be retrieved under control from the speaker's meaning, while the number features of verbs are more likely to be retrieved under control from the utterance's form. The implication is that the retrieval of words during language production is influenced by two distinct types of information, consistent with an inflectional account of agreement.

PRODIAG: A Process-Independent Transient Diagnostic System—I: Theoretical Concepts

A novel first-principles-based diagnostic system called PRODIAG is proposed for on-line detection and identification of faulty components during incipient off-normal process conditions. The concepts of qualitative physics reasoning and function-oriented diagnostics are employed in the design of PRODIAG and result in two unique capabilities not found in other plant-level diagnostic systems. First, PRODIAG is fully portable as it requires only modification of the input files containing the appropriate process schematics information to be able to diagnose single-component failures in different processes/plants. Second, PRODIAG detects unanticipated faults. Hence, it does not require the prespecification and formulation of rules to cover every conceivable fault scenario, and unlike traditional approaches, it is not likely to misdiagnose unforeseen events. PRODIAG’s approach is to map process symptoms into component faults through a three-step mapping procedure with a knowledge base containing three distinct types of information: qualitative macroscopic balance equation rules, functional classification of process components, and the process piping and instrumentation diagram. The concepts introduced in the proposed diagnostic system are described, and an illustrative example shows how they are used in plant-level diagnostics.

The Dispersion of Genetic Technologies and the Law

Genetic technologies offer two powerful and distinct types of information that have different implications. First, genetic tests can reveal information about an individual's predisposition to illness later in life. Numerous questions are raised by this sort of information: At what point in a test's development can individuals have access to it? What do people need to know before they decide whether to use a predictive test? Once predictive information is known, must the individual make efforts to ameliorate the risk? Can employers or insurers refuse to deal with a person who is likely to be expensive? The answers to these questions are made difficult because requiring individuals to act in ways that maximize physical health or allowing third parties to act on this information treads on liberty and privacy interests. But as complex as these questions are, they are nonetheless similar to issues that legislatures have confronted before. Second, genetic tests can reveal an individual's increased chance of having a child with certain, often undesired traits. Even suggesting that individuals act on this information requires that issues about promoting and avoiding childbearing be addressed. As with predictive testing, questions about childbearing also turn on liberty and privacy interests. The various aspects of controlling procreation are, however, harder to address because the scope of the freedom to make procreative decisions is more contested in our society than questions about how one deals with one's own health. Legislatures, administrative agencies, and courts have begun to grapple with some of these questions. To complicate matters further, private litigants often pursue claims that conflict with the goals of the public law sector. But while the law's response to genetic testing is incomplete and at times inconsistent, certain priorities emerge. Access to Services In the area of genetic testing, the federal government rarely provides services. It has also taken a less prominent, although still substantial, role in providing funds to states in recent years.[1] The states, the primary bearers of responsibility in matters of health, vary greatly in their approach to genetic services. Interestingly, legislators have generally ignored the reproductive implications of the service providing genetic information most commonly offered by the state-newborn screening. Finding an affected child during newborn screening often means that the parents have a substantial risk of having another affected child in later pregnancies. This risk can create a legal obligation to inform the parents of the implications for future childbearing. Many state agencies have struggled to develop strategies to reach these parents, particularly since the widespread adoption of hemoglobinopathy screening, which detects large numbers of children who are sickle-cell carriers. These state actors may view the need to convey genetic information as something they would rather avoid. Some officials, however, view the chance to avert the birth of affected children as an advantage of newborn screening. States have devoted more attention to the implications of genetic testing done explicitly in relation to procreation. Several state legislatures passed statutes creating statewide genetics programs that specifically include testing done primarily to enable individuals to make informed reproductive decisions. Enacted in the mid- to late 1970s, many of the statutes are quite elaborate, containing for example detailed provisions requiring that services be voluntary and that results be kept confidential. Others are quite simple, saying nothing at all about protecting the interests of the potential consultees. Indeed, some legislatures seem to have added statewide genetic services as an afterthought to newborn screening laws.[2] Analysis of the statutes and regulations that address reproductive genetic services suggests that there is little consensus about the appropriate uses of these technologies. …

TOPEX/POSEIDON tides estimated using a global inverse model

Altimetric data from the TOPEX/POSEIDON mission will be used for studies of global ocean circulation and marine geophysics. However, it is first necessary to remove the ocean tides, which are aliased in the raw data. The tides are constrained by two distinct types of information: the hydrodynamic equations which the tidal fields of elevations and velocities must satisfy, and direct observational data from tide gauges and satellite altimetry. Here we develop and apply a generalized inverse method, which allows us to combine rationally all of this information into global tidal fields best fitting both the data and the dynamics, in a least squares sense. The resulting inverse solution is a sum of the direct solution to the astronomically forced Laplace tidal equations and a linear combination of the representers for the data functionals. The representer functions (one for each datum) are determined by the dynamical equations, and by our prior estimates of the statistics of errors in these equations. Our major task is a direct numerical calculation of these representers. This task is computationally intensive, but well suited to massively parallel processing. By calculating the representers we reduce the full (infinite dimensional) problem to a relatively low‐dimensional problem at the outset, allowing full control over the conditioning and hence the stability of the inverse solution. With the representers calculated we can easily update our model as additional TOPEX/POSEIDON data become available. As an initial illustration we invert harmonic constants from a set of 80 open‐ocean tide gauges. We then present a practical scheme for direct inversion of TOPEX/POSEIDON crossover data. We apply this method to 38 cycles of geophysical data records (GDR) data, computing preliminary global estimates of the four principal tidal constituents, M2, S2, K1, and O1. The inverse solution yields tidal fields which are simultaneously smoother, and in better agreement with altimetric and ground truth data, than previously proposed tidal models. Relative to the “default” tidal corrections provided with the TOPEX/POSEIDON GDR, the inverse solution reduces crossover difference variances significantly (≈20–30%), even though only a small number of free parameters (≈1000) are actually fit to the crossover data.

Understanding face recognition.

The aim of this paper is to develop a theoretical model and a set of terms for understanding and discussing how we recognize familiar faces, and the relationship between recognition and other aspects of face processing. It is suggested that there are seven distinct types of information that we derive from seen faces; these are labelled pictorial, structural, visually derived semantic, identity-specific semantic, name, expression and facial speech codes. A functional model is proposed in which structural encoding processes provide descriptions suitable for the analysis of facial speech, for analysis of expression and for face recognition units. Recognition of familiar faces involves a match between the products of structural encoding and previously stored structural codes describing the appearance of familiar faces, held in face recognition units. Identity-specific semantic codes are then accessed from person identity nodes, and subsequently name codes are retrieved. It is also proposed that the cognitive system plays an active role in deciding whether or not the initial match is sufficiently close to indicate true recognition or merely a 'resemblance'; several factors are seen as influencing such decisions. This functional model is used to draw together data from diverse sources including laboratory experiments, studies of everyday errors, and studies of patients with different types of cerebral injury. It is also used to clarify similarities and differences between processes for object, word and face recognition.

Application of a Hybrid OVD/CIG System to Tactical Map Problems

Today's combat commander is faced with a two-sided problem. First, since the modern battlefield is characterized by mobility, lethality and speed, the commander and his staff must digest more tactical information and make decisions faster than ever before. Second, the current manpower problems may mean that less qualified personnel will have to operate today's highly sophisticated C3I equipment. Therefore, future tactical systems must be designed to (1) aid the combat commander by presenting precise and timely information in the most user-efficient manner possible and (2) require a minimum of training in their operation. In general, tactical maps show a requirement for two distinct types of information. The first type is background images, such as terrain, that are generally fixed but highly detailed. The second type is information that changes rapidly, such as order of battle or an interactive “scratchpad” overlay. The Boeing sponsored program uses computer image generating (CIG) techniques to display both types of information. The background images are generated off-line and stored on an optical video disc (OVD) for random retrieval when required. Rapidly changing data are generated in real time and electronically overlayed on the background information. CIG techniques allow display of only the information germane to the problem at hand so that screen clutter is reduced. It also allows the generation of special effects such as zoom magnification, low altitude horizontal points of view, and specially coded features. An example of a specially coded feature is a background display in which the terrain slopes that are too steep for armour to climb are color coded. These special effects will allow unique user interactions, one of which is simulating a low level reconnaissance “flight” by shifting the low altitude horizontal field of view to consecutive viewpoints. Control of the display is done in a user oriented manner using a touch sensitive screen on the CRT and a special purpose keyboard. Computer synthesized speech provides optional prompting and supplementary instructions. Menu selections on the CRT and special purpose keyboard are designed to lead the user along the available paths to the desired information.

Information capacity of fading channels under conditions of intense interference

The newer, more efficient data transmission systems which are designed to combat channel variations or interference, or both, require information concerning the channel variations for proper operation. Although it is seldom recognized, such systems must receive and process two distinct types of information. The first, and quite obvious, type of information concerns the intelligence signal which is provided as an output from the receiving terminal of the system. The second, and much less obvious, type of information concerns medium variations. This information is normally used internally at the receiver terminal in order that proper processing of of the received signal may be obtained. As the channel SNR progressively worsens, the total information capacity of the channel must of necessity decrease. Eventually the total information capacity of the channel becomes so small that the receiver is denied the required information concerning medium variations and proper operation of systems of the above type is no longer possible. This paper is concerned with the limiting case of very small channel SNR's that are below the level required for analysis of the medium at the receiver. The channel capacity of an ideal or nonfading channel is derived for reference purposes and in order that an estimate of the information rate loss due to medium variations at low SNR's may be obtained. The problem of data transmission over a fading channel under conditions of intense interference is approached in an intuitive manner. A system for operation under such conditions is proposed which appears to offer the best performance possible. The performance of this proposed system is then analyzed to yield capacity formulas for the conditions specified. No proof is given that the system proposed is, in fact, ideal but the resulting capacity formulas are believed to be correct in form and sufficiently accurate in a quantitative sense for useful practical application. The mathematical approach used is sufficiently general to permit inclusion of random system variations (such as oscillator phase) as part of the medium variations and hence the results are believed to be applicable to a wide variety of communications situations including deep-space probe telemetry.

Analysis of crystalline haemoglobin derivatives by paramagnetic resonance.

THE investigation of single crystals of haemoglobin derivatives by paramagnetic resonance can give two distinct types of information. First, the actual resonance conditions and the resultant g values associated with the electronic transitions will yield details on the orbitals involved in the chemical binding of the central iron atom. Secondly, the angular variation of the g values enables an accurate determination to be made of the orientation of the haem and porphyrin planes with respect to the external crystalline axes. Although the structure of the rest of the molecule cannot be analysed directly in this way, detailed information on the orientation of the haem planes can be combined with X-ray measurements1 to calculate the polypeptide chain directions and similar factors. It would appear that the determination of the haem plane orientations by paramagnetic resonance is much more accurate than that by any other method so far applied.