Distance Learning Context Research Articles

Learning design for holistic student formation

A longstanding area of disagreement among theological educators has been whether the holistic formational goals of theological education can be adequately addressed through non–face-to-face learning modes. This study explored student perceptions of how their experience of studying theology in an asynchronous online context contributed to their holistic formation. Student participants were enrolled in one or more of 22 new online units of study which were developed and offered over three cycles as part of larger design-based research project. The study, initiated and conducted prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, found a broad range of design elements contributed to five dimensions of student formation (theological understanding, personal dispositions, ministry dispositions, ministry skills, identity), suggesting that purposeful learning design can facilitate holistic student formation in online and distance learning contexts. Although this study examined learning design for holistic student formation in theological courses, the results may be of interest for other disciplines with similar holistic formational aims.

Virtual internships in open and distance learning contexts: Improving access, participation, and success for underrepresented students

This study at The Open University in the United Kingdom examined the effectiveness of specifying internship opportunities for underrepresented student groups in two faculties. Our data, gathered through intern focus groups and supervisor interviews, demonstrate that the virtual internship scheme has been successful from both intern and supervisor perspectives, providing flexible and supportive opportunities which help interns to develop transferable skills and confidence. The virtual internship approach therefore provides opportunities for large-scale distance learning institutions to routinely offer work experience to their students, supported by the further development of effective remote working practices. Unexpected benefits of this program emerged through the staff-student partnerships developed in university-based internships. Future research will focus on mechanisms to further improve and scale up the virtual internship program to enhance access for underrepresented students and to explore how virtuality contributes to new perspectives of employability.

The Role of Psychological Safety in Enhancing Medical Students’ Engagement in Online Synchronous Learning

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic instigated a global change in the delivery of undergraduate medical education, with an eminent shift from in-person to online teaching. The virtual methods that were utilised to a limited extent previously have now become the mainstay in education. The concept of psychological safety has been studied previously within medical education, but not in the distance learning context. The aim of the study was to explore students’ experiences of online learning and to gain an understanding of the factors affecting psychological safety and its subsequent impact on their learning.MethodsA qualitative, social constructivist approach was adopted in this research. Data collection involved semi-structured interviews with 15 medical students from the University of Dundee. There was a representation from each year group on the undergraduate medical course. Data was transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically.ResultsFive key themes were identified as motivation for learning, engagement with learning, fear of judgement, group learning and adjustment to online learning. Each of these comprised of interlinked subthemes related to peer and tutor interactions.ConclusionsDrawing on students’ experiences, the paper presents the significant interplay of group interactions and tutor attributes operating in the virtual synchronous learning environment. The relevance of psychological safety in student learning and experience, and strategies to foster it in online classrooms are discussed in the context of existing literature and proposed future developments.

Assessment, life circumstances, curriculum and skills: Barriers and enablers to student mental wellbeing in distance learning.

Student mental wellbeing is increasingly a priority for universities, and this is particularly critical in a distance learning context. Studies have found that studying, academic pressure, university culture and systems can affect students' mental health. There are increasing calls for universities to take a compassionate, holistic approach to supporting student wellbeing, and identify the barriers that are created by university cultures, systems, pedagogies, curricula, tuition and assessment practices. This study aimed to identify barriers and enablers to student mental wellbeing in distance learning, and students' recommendations for changes to be made. Using a student survey (N = 584), we identified that assessment and life circumstances were the most significant barriers, while the greatest enablers were building study skills, the people in students' lives, and curriculum and module content. The study revealed significant demographic differences in how students experience barriers and enablers, and how likely they feel they are to benefit from solutions. Students with disclosed mental health difficulties were consistently more likely to experience barriers than students without a disclosure, while enablers were experienced by all demographic groups. The study concludes that assessment should be prioritised as an area for action.

The Transactional Distance Theory and Distance Learning Contexts: Theory Integration, Research Gaps, and Future Agenda

Moore established transactional distance theory (TDT) to grasp transactional distance in the context of distance learning. Research using TDT in distance, open, and online learning environments has been undertaken. However, there are information gaps about what constitutes progress, future directions, and research deficits pertaining to TDT in the context of distance education. This systematic literature review (SLR) used PRISMA to analyze 42 papers to close the knowledge gap. Currently, TDT research in distance learning integrates various theories and models; nevertheless, there is a movement toward acceptance models and how to incorporate more relevant theories within the framework of distance learning. Future studies should integrate other aspects such as student motivation, student acceptance of technology, and student preparedness and desire to utilize technology in learning environments. As most research samples students, a research gap involving instructors and heterogeneous groups is proposed. It is projected that quantitative research will predominate in the future, leaving qualitative and mixed approaches as areas of investigation. This review illuminates the developments, future agenda, and research needs pertaining to TDT in the context of distance learning. It might serve as a foundation for future study on TDT in the context of distance, open, and online education.

The impact of applying challenge-based gamification program on students' learning outcomes: Academic achievement, motivation and flow.

Despite the growing attention towards gamification in learning context, challenge-based gamification application has rarely been subjected to testing in education. In recognition of this void, and grounded on gamification principles, we developed Educhall web-based program. Drawing on self-determination theory, and flow theory the present study aims to explore how the application of this challenge-based gamified program in to learning process of students can increase students' motivation, flow, and academic success through the generated competition and challenge. The study applied a random experimental research design within distance learning context with 30 university students of control group and 30 students of experimental group who used the Educhall application for one academic semester. In line with self-determination theory, it was statistically evidenced that application of challenge-based gamified learning method increased level of academic performance and overall motivation. Of the motivational sub factors, experimental group reported significantly higher confidence level and satisfaction towards the course. Furthermore, grounded on flow theory, the study showed that challenge-based gamified learning increased flow level of learners but not significantly which warrants further data collection and experimental research in future studies. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Correlation between the Challenges of Teachers in the New Learning Delivery Modality and Leadership Practices of School Heads

The COVID-19 pandemic affected education worldwide due to community lockdown and quarantine, driving students and school personnel to study and work from home and leading to various learning delivery modalities. Findings revealed that teachers’ challenges in the new learning delivery modality were “to a very large extent.” On the other hand, school heads “highly performed” their leadership practices with teachers claiming them “performed.” Moreover, teachers’ challenges in the new learning delivery modalities were moderately and positively correlated with and significantly related to the school heads’ leadership practices. The study concludes that the current instructional modality limit learners’ interaction opportunities with their teachers and classmates and affect their holistic development. Likewise, the disparity between teachers’ and school heads’ perspectives on the leadership practices could be due to the limiting connection between teachers and school heads, failing to monitor activities fully in the course of duty. The study recommends that teachers are encouraged to study and attend training to understand how different learning modalities are related to students’ experiences and learning to be fully equipped with what constitutes effective instructional design in distance learning contexts. Finally, leadership skills and managerial practice standards should be explored among school heads to structure quality school monitoring and evaluation to help teachers cope with the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic.

An Assessment of the Reliability and Validity of the PERMA Well-Being Scale for Adult Undergraduate Students in an Open and Distance Learning Context.

The PERMA well-being scale measures the multidimensionality of well-being in human populations. It highlights positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Despite the empirical advancement and evolution of the PERMA scale in different settings, its applicability to open and distance learning (ODL) has not been adequately established among undergraduate students in sub-Saharan Africa. Our study examines the theoretical reliability, validity, and five-factor structure of the shortened 35-item version of the PERMA well-being scale as it was adapted in an ODL tertiary institution in Botswana. The PERMA model of well-being and self-determination theory (SDT) served as theoretical frameworks. We evaluated the adapted PERMA scale's reliability, construct validity, confirmatory factor analysis, and measures of invariance to assess if the data of undergraduate students in an ODL context study fitted the PERMA model of a well-being five-factor structure. We used a multi-stage sampling scheme incorporating a convenience sampling approach where the respondents were invited to voluntarily participate in the study through a WhatsApp group, followed by snowball sampling where we asked the participants to add others to the WhatsApp group during the timeline of the survey; the sample comprised 215 respondents (age: mean = 38.17, standard deviation = 6.472). We collected data from former and active undergraduate B.Ed. (Bachelor of Education) degree students from five regional campuses of the open university through an online survey built into the Qualtrics platform. The Cronbach's alpha indicated that one item should be removed from the engagement domain. The overall adapted scale retained a 34-item PERMA well-being scale in the particular ODL context. The goodness of fit indices confirmed the five-domain structure with the 34 items. The psychometric properties of the 34-item adapted PERMA well-being scale suggest that it can be a valuable and feasible instrument in ODL in sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, the adapted scale can be applied in educational settings moving towards open and distance e-learning forms of delivery.

Overcoming Transactional Distance through Implementing Podcasts and Vodcasts: Perceptions from an Open Distance and e-Learning University

<p><span lang="EN-US">The COVID-19 pandemic challenged instructional methods of teaching and learning in universities around the world. To bridge this instructional gap, many universities opted for the use of digital technological innovations to reach students. Despite the implementation of these innovations, many higher education institutions were not fully prepared and ready for online teaching and learning during the pandemic. Researchers have argued that podcast and vodcast implementation in higher education institutions bring about no change to students’ motivation and performance. Consequently, there is still limited research on podcast and vodcast implementation and students’ perceptions on the utilisation of these tools in distance learning contexts. Using email interviews and online open-ended evaluation questions, this article aims to explore first-year undergraduate students’ perceptions of using podcasts and vodcasts to enhance academic writing skills in an open distance and e-Learning university in South Africa. Using transactional distance theory, the findings indicate lecturers and students’ positive perceptions towards the implementation of podcasts and vodcasts because today’s students consume digital content [digital natives], enjoy the use of technology and are adept to navigating online learning. However, even though, at first, novice lecturers were hesitant and unfamiliar with recording podcasts and vodcasts, through mediation, lecturers ended up recording quality podcasts and vodcasts that were clear and made use of illustrations that made it easier for students to understand the module’s content. The researchers recommend that lecturers consider their students’ interests, motivation, language and demographic backgrounds in creating podcasts and vodcasts.</span></p>

Contribution of automated feedback to the English writing competence of distance foreign language learners

In recent years, automated feedback (AF) has greatly increased its applicability as a mean to support development of English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ writing competence in the context of face-to-face education. This study examines contribution of AF to the development of writing competence of EFL learners in open and distance learning context. Anadolu University, Open Education Faculty learners received regular feedback on their writing tasks by an AF tool, Write & Improve. The contribution of AF to academic writing success was observed by statistically comparing the grades of the learners for their writing tasks at the beginning and at the end of the process and also by correlation analysis between AF frequency and achievement scores. In the second stage of the study, detailed data about learners’ experiences were obtained by interviewing volunteer participants. The quantitative and qualitative findings of the study showed that AF significantly contributed to the development of writing competence of EFL learners at a distance. Interviews with learners revealed themes such as effective learning process, contribution to foreign language development, motivation increase, effective and fast feedback, user-friendly learning environment, support for individual learning, and contribution to distance learning as the strengths of AF. The interviews also included participants’ suggestions on how to use these tools more effectively. Based on the findings, pedagogical implications are discussed regarding the incorporation of AF in distance EFL learning.

Teaching of Make Prototype Step of Design Process by E-tutors in Open and Distance e-Learning Context

The ODeL model is noted for its unique approach to courses, especially that aimed at producing future entrepreneurs. The make prototype part of the design process is viewed as a foundation for entrepreneurship education in this article. An objective was set to see how e-tutors' topic expertise affects their capacity to help students envision the make prototype step of the design process in order to attain this goal. 350 postgraduate students enrolling in a semester module in 2020 were the subject of the research. In order to assist students with the make of the make prototype stage of the design process in an ODeL context, an online observation tool was utilized to study the expertise of e-tutors. The data acquired from five different e-tutor websites was evaluated. According to the findings, e-tutors in ODeL settings were unable to conceptualize the make prototype stage of the design process. Suggestions: An alternative technique for e-tutor appointments is proposed based on the current concept.

Data-driven and research-based learning approaches to environmental education in university contexts: two case studies in Italy and Germany

AbstractThis work is a contribution to the usefulness of climate-related authentic material for pedagogical purposes in Higher Education. The two case studies had the aim of raising environmental awareness of a sustainable future among university students, while encouraging them to explore language use and draw their own conclusions and considerations through different methodologies. Specifically, we highlight how posts from the social networking platform Instagram can help learners with different levels of language proficiency in Higher Education, approach specific topics using authentic language samples and visual data, and simultaneously develop new skills that may be integrated within their field of study. The case studies occurred in a distance learning context at the University of Calabria and Humboldt University of Berlin. They present two possible ways of increasing climate change awareness among university students while applying data-driven and research-based learning interdisciplinary approaches to climate change communication.

STUDENT TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES IN USING OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCE IN THE OPEN DISTANCE LEARNING CONTEXT

Open education resource (OER) has become an increasingly important topic for consideration in the open distance learning (ODL) context. ODL students’ education should be learner-centered based on intrinsic motivation and OER usage. The purpose of this study was to explore the student teachers’ experiences in using open education resource in ODL. Even though many studies have been conducted on OER in ODL, there are insufficient empirical studies that have explored environmental education (EE) student teachers’ experiences in using OER in the ODL environment. In exploring this topic, the qualitative research methodology, interpretive paradigm, and rhizomatic approach were used. Participants and documents were purposefully sampled. Data was ethically collected through documentation and semi-structured telephonic interviews. The data were thematically analysed and processed to find patterns, keywords were identified, coded, and clustered into categories, and themes emerged. Qualitative findings showed that EE studentteachers knew about OER informally and some students wanted to use OER. Hindrances to OER usage by student-teachers included little engagement with OER by lecturers and costs to access OER.

Examining evaluative language used in assessment feedback on business students’ academic writing

Written assessment feedback in higher education has been examined from different perspectives. However, there is limited empirical evidence of how tutors use language to provide assessment feedback on students’ assessed academic writing. By deploying the rarely used Appraisal framework in Systemic Functional Linguistics, this innovative study examined the use of evaluative language by tutors in feedback on undergraduate business students’ academic writing in two assignments at a distance university. The data consisted of 16 tutor assessment feedback summaries on eight students’ written assignments and interviews with those students. The Appraisal system of Attitude ( Judgement, Appreciation and Affect ) was used to analyse the evaluative language of the summaries. The analysis of student interviews provided insights into their perceptions of tutor feedback, complementing the linguistic analysis. The findings suggest that tutors’ evaluative language was primarily used to judge students rather than to appreciate the assignment, and show their emotional reactions, potentially owing to the distance learning context. Additionally, while most of the feedback was perceived positively, students found certain types of tutor feedback less helpful. The paper has implications for moving assessment feedback research forward through applying the Appraisal framework, improving assessment strategies and tutor formative feedback practices in writing assessment. • Examines feedback summaries on distance undergraduate students’ assignments. • Investigates innovatively evaluative language in feedback summaries through an SFL Perspective (Appraisal framework). • Feedback summaries focus on students’ writing behaviour rather than their assignments. • Tutor’s choice of evaluative language can affect student learning experiences.

Usability Requirements for Learning Management Systems in Open Distance Electronic Learning Environments: Considering Lecturers’ Views on Students’ Needs

The global digitization drive, accelerated by the 2020 health pandemic brought renewed research interest in the use and usability of learning management systems (LMSs). The purpose of this study was to propose validated usability guidelines for an LMS in an open distance and electronic learning (ODeL) context based on lecturers’ views of students’ needs. A set of usability requirements was abstracted from the literature and used as the basis for a heuristic evaluation (HE) of the institution’s LMS. The results were triangulated with the results of three other usability evaluation methods including usability testing with eye tracking, a post-test system usability scale (SUS) questionnaire and interviews. The primary contribution is the validated usability requirements for ODeL LMSs. A secondary contribution is the triangulation approach, which allowed a comparison of the usability evaluation methods’ results and confirmed HE as an effective and efficient evaluation method for LMSs.

Learners’ Online Self-Regulated Learning Skills in Indonesia Open University: Implications for Policies and Practice

To succeed in online distance learning where students are physically separated from teachers and peers, students must develop self-regulated learning skills to effectively manage their learning process. This study examined how students with different demographic backgrounds adopt or fail to adopt self-regulated learning to engage in online distance learning. Survey data were collected from 295 students at Indonesia Open University. Although students’ online learning self-efficacy and online self-regulated learning were above average, they reported low levels of confidence and abilities to seek help, develop task strategies, and allocate time for online learning. Their online self-regulated learning and online learning self-efficacy were significantly correlated. However, there were no significant relationships between online self-regulated learning and learning performance, and between online learning self-efficacy and learning performance. Furthermore, female and/or older students reported lower learning performance than male and younger students. Qualitative data from open-ended questions were analyzed to interpret the quantitative results. Recommendations for stakeholders of open universities were made to assist in students’ improvement of self-regulated learning skills and to address equity issues in Indonesian online distance learning and similar contexts.

Students’ and Teacher’s Challenges in Distance Learning Implementation in EFL Context in SMK Nusa Dua Toya Anyar Kubu, Karangasem

This study aims to investigate the students’ and teacher’s challenges in learning EFL in distance learning context for 162 eleventh grade students and one English teacher in SMK Nusa Dua Toya Anyar Kubu, Karangasem in the academic year of 2020/2021. This study used mixed-method as the data were collected through questionnaire for the quantitative data and interview for qualitative data. The quantitative data were analyzed by using SPSS to find the mean score and used TCR guidelines of categorization developed from Sugiyono (2017), while the qualitative data were analyzed according to the steps by Miles and Huberman (1994). The result of students’ challenges are found that the challenges related to instructional variables (lack of explanation from teachers and limited opportunity to practice four English basic skills) were categorized the highest challenges experienced by the students compared to in institutional and individual variables. In addition, the result for the teacher’s data analysis found that the evaluation and assessment variables are the highest challenges compared to access and motivation variables. Understanding the role of teacher as the instructor in distance learning is important to improve students’ ability and can minimize the students’ challenges in distance learning.
 Keywords: Distance learning, EFL, Learning Challenges

AI-based automated writing evaluation for online language learning: Perceptions of distance learners

With the spread of information and communication technologies, increasing demands for learning independent of time and place, and rapid changes in the learner profile, open and distance learning has been increasingly adopted by higher education institutions. In the face of the increasing number of students, these institutions have started to make use of artificial intelligence-based technologies to maximize the effectiveness and efficiency of online learning. Automated writing evaluation (AWE) tools, which are among these technologies, have the potential to provide effective and efficient formative feedback, especially in foreign language writing activities. Based on the relevant literature, it is seen that the effectiveness AWE tools has been examined in face-to-face learning contexts with the support of teachers. However, there are not enough studies on the use of these AWE tools in open and distance learning contexts. This study aims to reveal the views of adult distance English language learners regarding their AWE tool experiences following a four-week writing activity. Data gathered through online open-ended questionnaire revealed learners' evaluation of the process, how the feedback they received contributed to their writing skills, and their suggestions for the use of AWE in distance language learning. It is expected that the obtained data will contribute to the literature on the effectiveness of the use of AWE tools in distance language learning processes.

Implementation of a Remote Instrumental Music Course Focused on Creativity, Interaction, and Bodily Movement. Preliminary Insights and Thematic Analysis.

In a newly designed collaborative online music course, four musical novices unknown to each other learned to play the clarinet starting from zero. Over the course of 12 lessons, a special emphasis was placed on creativity, mutual interaction, and bodily movement. Although addressing these dimensions might be particularly challenging in distance learning contexts, a thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with the learners revealed how the teaching approach proposed has generally facilitated learning. Qualitative findings highlight the importance of establishing meaningful relationships with the musical instrument as well as with other students to build musicality, and of the interplay between creativity and control in individual and collective music-making activities. We suggest that remote music tuition with a small group can be a valuable resource to start learning music and that a creative, collaborative, and movement-based approach can contribute to musical growth.

Blended Tutorials: Blended Synchronous Learning in Mathematics

A blended tutorial is a single learning event which gives students the opportunity of attending face-to-face or online. This article reports the findings of a scholarship of teaching and learning project conducted at The Open University, and considers the barriers and opportunities to using blended tutorials to support distance learning. Two pilot blended tutorials were carried out on the honours mathematics module M337 Complex Analysis, and the results of the evaluation are presented. Using qualitative data from practitioner reflections, lesson observations and semi-structured student interviews, this project uses thematic analysis to identify barriers and opportunities to using blended tutorials. Particular emphasis is given to the unique challenges in learning mathematics, and in the distance learning context of The Open University. The report concludes with recommendations for the design of blended tutorials, and recommendations for future research.