Distance In Children Research Articles

Association Between Maternal Fasting Glucose Levels Throughout Pregnancy and Preschoolers' Refractive Errors.

We aimed to investigate the association between maternal fasting plasma glucose (FPG) trajectories during pregnancy and children's refractive errors at 6 years of age. Based on the Ma'anshan Birth Cohort (MABC) in China, a total of 1987 mother-child pairs were included in this study. Using the group-based trajectory model, trajectory fitting was performed on FPG levels during the first, second, and third trimesters of pregnancy. Children's vision was measured at 6 years of age using the standard logarithmic visual acuity E-chart and cycloplegic refraction examination. Logistic regression models and multi-informant generalized estimating equations were used to analyze the association between maternal blood glucose level and 6-year-old children's visual acuity. Children born of mothers with high level FPG trajectory had a higher risk of developing refractive error (odds ratio [OR] = 1.46 [95% CI: 1.08, 1.97]), hypermetropia (OR = 1.64 [95% CI: 1.09, 2.46]), and astigmatism (OR = 1.60 [95% CI: 1.06, 2.41]) at age 6 compared to those with low level trajectory. Maternal blood glucose level in the first (β = -.012 [95% CI: -.024, -.001]) and the second (β = -.016 [95% CI: -.025, -.006]) trimesters was associated with 6-year-old children's distance vision value. High level of FPG trajectories during pregnancy has been observed to be associated with 6-year-old children's refractive error, hypermetropia, and astigmatism. The first and the second trimesters may be critical periods for the effects of maternal blood glucose on children's vision. The long-term effect of maternal glucose metabolism on children's visual development deserves further study.

Parents' Attitudes and Stress Levels Associated with Assisting Children's Distance Learning in Westren Indonesia

The Indonesian government implemented distance learning to reduce the viral spread during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. A preliminary study based on interviews with 10 parents found that some parents had problems accessing the internet during their children’s online classes and that they used an excessive amount of data. Parents also had difficulty dividing their time between working and assisting their children with their online learning. This study aimed to determine parents’ attitudes and stress levels associated with assisting their children’s distance learning in western Indonesia. A descriptive research method was utilized, and the research population consisted of parents with school-age children undergoing distance learning in western Indonesia. The accidental sampling technique was used, and 384 respondents were involved. The research instrument was a questionnaire. Univariate analysis was used to analyze the data. The results showed that 1.6% of the respondents had a low stress level, 49.7% had a medium stress level, and 48.7% had a high stress level. The results also revealed that more than half of the respondents (51.3%; n=197) had a positive attitude toward assisting their school-age children during distance learning. Given that this study involved a substantial sample of parents, the findings have implications for academic institutions and community leaders in western Indonesia and similar region. The findings indicate that efforts could be made to educate parents about their stress and attitudes associated with distance learning and the effects these have on their children’s learning.Abstrak Perilaku dan Stres Orang Tua dalam Mendampingi Anak yang Menjalani Pembelajaran Jarak Jauh. Pemerintah menetapkan pembelajaran jarak jauh untuk memutus mata rantai penyebaran COVID-19. Sebuah studi pendahuluan yang melibatkan sepuluh orang tua, ditemukan bahwa beberapa orang tua memiliki masalah dalam mengakses jaringan selama kelas online dengan penggunaan kuota yang berlebihan. Orang tua juga kesulitan membagi waktu untuk bekerja dan mendampingi anak dalam pembelajaran daring. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan sikap dan tingkat stres orang tua dalam mendampingi pembelajaran jarak jauh anak di Indonesia bagian barat. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian deskriptif, dengan populasi penelitian orang tua dengan anak usia sekolah yang menjalani pembelajaran jarak jauh di Indonesia Barat. Teknik pengambilan sampel yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah accidental sampling sebanyak 384 responden. Instrumen penelitian menggunakan kuesioner. Teknik analisis data yang digunakan dalam analisis univariat. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan tingkat stres rendah (1,6%), stres sedang (49,7%), dan stres tinggi (48,7%). Penelitian ini juga mengungkapkan bahwa lebih dari separuh responden memiliki sikap positif terhadap pendampingan anak usia sekolah selama pembelajaran jarak jauh, yaitu sebanyak 197 responden (51,3%). Penelitian ini melibatkan sampel orang tua yang cukup besar, sehingga temuan-temuan yang ada memiliki implikasi bagi institusi akademis dan tokoh masyarakat di Indonesia bagian barat dan wilayah serupa. Upaya-upaya dapat dilakukan untuk mengedukasi orang tua mengenai stres dan sikap mereka terkait pembelajaran jarak jauh dan dampaknya terhadap pembelajaran anak-anak mereka. Kata Kunci: orang tua, pembelajaran jarak jauh, perilaku, stres

The Development of Children’s Learning Assistance Strategy in The Covid-19 Pandemic with a Positive Deviance Approach

This study aims to help parents develop effective learning assistance strategies for their children's distance learning during COVID-19 pandemic. This study applies action research with a positive deviance approach, involving the transfer of knowledge and experiences of positive deviants, namely parents who have previously found adaptive assisting strategies. The participants consisted of parents of elementary school students, with children who are carrying out full learning from home. Data collection was carried out through interviews, focus group discussions, observation, and the use of documents via a google form, while the data analysis used thematic analysis techniques. The results obtained are in the form of a formulation of effective learning assistance strategies applied at home based on good parental practices during the COVID-19 pandemic, consisting of steps to overcome four specific challenges. All strategic steps formulated have a positive impact on both parents and children.

Normative Values of Tibial Tubercle–Trochlear Groove Distance and Tibial Tubercle–Posterior Cruciate Ligament Distance in Children

Background: Patellar instability is a common knee pathology in skeletally immature patients. In skeletally mature populations, a tibial tubercle–trochlear groove (TT-TG) distance of ≥20 mm is generally considered a pathological value. However, as pediatric patients grow and as the TT-TG distance varies with age, applying the same cutoff value as adult patients to them is unreasonable. Purpose/Hypothesis: This study aimed to analyze the normative values of the TT-TG and tibial tubercle–posterior cruciate ligament (TT-PCL) distances in children with no patellofemoral instability and to propose the cutoff value of the TT-TG and TT-PCL distances predictive of increased risk of patellofemoral instability in pediatric patients. We hypothesized that the TT-TG and TT-PCL distances increase with age in children and adolescents. Study Design: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Magnetic resonance imaging scans of the knee were collected from the patellar instability group and the control group. The TT-TG and TT-PCL distances were measured. The normalized values of the TT-TG and TT-PCL distances were calculated by dividing them by the femoral width. Segmented analysis with 1 breakpoint was performed for both the TT-TG and the TT-PCL distances. The optimal cutoff values of the TT-TG and TT-PCL distances were calculated by maximizing the sum of the sensitivity and specificity. Results: A total of 87 patients had patellar instability, and 509 patients did not. The median values of TT-TG and TT-PCL distances in the control group (8.18 mm and 19.48 mm, respectively) were significantly smaller than those in the instability group (16.10 mm and 24.41 mm, respectively). For those aged <15 years, the TT-TG distance significantly increased by 0.39 mm as the age increased by 1 year. The TT-PCL distance increased by 1.14 mm/year until the age of 11 years. In our cohort, the cutoff value of the TT-TG distance of 14.90 mm yielded 66% sensitivity and 81.9% specificity for predicting an increased risk of patellar instability. The cutoff value of the TT-PCL distance of 23.68 mm yielded 63.9% sensitivity and 65.3% specificity for predicting an increased risk of patellar instability. Conclusion: In our cohort of 596 participants, we have documented the normative values of the TT-TG and TT-PCL distances in children aged <20 years. During the surgery for patellar instability in pediatric patients, orthopaedic surgeons should consider the normative values of the TT-TG and TT-PCL distances according to age to determine which patients need distal realignment surgery.

MIRNA Adaptive 3D Game to assist children's Distance Learning Difficulties Design and Teachers Intention to use

The global transition from traditional classroom instruction to online learning has been hastened through COVID-19. Notwithstanding its benefits, students were unable to quickly adjust to the difficulties of change. This research offers MIRNA, an assistive 3D instructional tool for slow learners in primary school, mostly for Arabic, English, and Math topics, to address academic issues that develop with online education. The proposed tool can be fully integrated with remedial programs to assist students who struggled to adjust to distant learning during the pandemic, slow learners, or even those who are unable to attend school. This application categorizes students based on academic performance rather than age and automatically adjusts to their limitations. Additionally, MIRNA offers a simple interface that allows teachers to personalize it with their own content and game scenarios. We carried out an empirical investigation to assess teachers' intentions to use MIRNA as an online learning platform in the learning process. The findings of the study show that teachers’ attitude towards the game was positive, and they intended to use the game in the learning process in the future

Parental Perspective: The challenges and benefits of distance learning during Covid-19

One of the effects of the existence of Covid-19 was that face-to-face schooling could not be conducted continuously, and so another possible way of learning had to be arranged. The difference between online and face-to-face learning has invited some perceptions and obstacles to the implementation. Thus, this study aimed to describe the parents’ perception on the benefits and challenges towards the distance learning during the pandemic at school in Aceh, Indonesia. This study took a case in one junior high school in Banda Aceh, Aceh, Indonesia. There were 25 parents taken purposively as the sample. The study used questionnaire and interview to collect the data. The questionnaire and interview guide consisted of 10 questions posted on Google Form. The results found that the implementation of distance learning has led to the benefits and challenges. A number of challenges faced by parents when assisting their children with distance learning included lack of access to technology. Furthermore, parents had lack of knowledge or skills to assist their children with their homework, especially if the subject matter was unfamiliar. The last challenge was time constraints among the parents, making it difficult to find the time to support their children's distance learning. On the other hand, the Covid-19 pandemic has also brought significant gains toward education. The benefits were to minimize the children to be infected by the Covid-19, to engage relationship between the kids and parents, and to encourage parents to use their creativity and digital literacy in implementing the learning material.

Reference Values and Prediction Equation for Six-Minute Walk Distance in Children Aged 6-12 Years

Reference Values and Prediction Equation for Six-Minute Walk Distance in Children Aged 6-12 Years

How children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis view participation and communication in healthcare encounters: a qualitative study

BackgroundChildren report that they do not participate in their healthcare as much as they want, despite having the lawful right to form their own views and the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting them. Children and parents appeared to be more satisfied when healthcare professionals (HCP) use a participatory style in healthcare encounters.AimTo explore how children, adolescents and young adults with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA) and parents of children with JIA view their participation and communication in healthcare encounters with healthcare professionals.MethodsUsing a qualitative study design, participatory workshops were held separately for children and young adults with JIA and parents of children with JIA. The workshop data were analysed with Graneheim and Lundman’s Qualitative Content Analysis resulting in one main theme and two subthemes.ResultsThe theme “Feeling alienated or familiar with healthcare encounters” illuminates how children felt alienated at healthcare encounters if they found the encounters emotionally distressing. Children could withhold information regarding their health and function from both HCPs and their family and friends. The subtheme “Distancing oneself from healthcare” describe why children felt reluctant to engage in the healthcare encounters and experienced difficulty expressing how they really felt. The subtheme “Being a normal event in life” describe how children felt more comfortable over time engaging with HCPs when they knew what would happen, and felt that HCPs gave them the necessary support they needed to participate.ConclusionsChildren’s participation in healthcare encounters varied depending if children felt alienated or familiar to the healthcare situations. Children distance themselves and are reluctant to engage in healthcare encounters if they find them emotionally distressing and feel disregarded. Over time, children can become more familiar and at ease with healthcare situations when they feel safe and experience personal and positive encounters. When the children are prepared for the encounter, provided with the space and support they want and receive tailored help they are more enabled to participate.

Associations between demographics and quality of life in children in the first year of cancer treatment.

Symptom distress and decreased quality of life (QOL) among children with cancer are well documented. Research is emerging on the child's voice in QOL-symptom reports, but existing QOL questionnaires are burdensome and objective biologic markers are lacking. We examined children's symptoms and QOL from parent and child perspectives and compared the results to one biologic marker (body posture). A cross-sectional secondary analysis of prospective data from children receiving creative arts therapy explored potential associations among demographics with and between QOL measures (PedsQL, Faces Scale, posture). Children (n = 98) ranged in age from 3 to 17 years (M = 7.8) and were in the first year of cancer treatment. No significant associations were found among the child's sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), or distance from hospital, and total PedsQL. Older age was associated with worse total PedsQL, pain, nausea, worry, and posture (all P < 0.05). Greater worry (β = 0.51) and worse posture (β = 0.41) were the QOL variables most strongly correlated with older age. Poorer posture was associated with worse child PedsQL (total score, nausea, treatment anxiety, cognitive) and parent PedsQL (pain, nausea). Worse scores on the Faces Scale, PedsQL, and posture were all correlated (r = 0.21-0.39, all P < 0.05). Interventions to improve QOL could target nausea, worry, and older patients. Accuracy and interpretation of symptom distress in children are problematic. The Faces Scale and posture may be suitable, readily obtained measures of QOL in pediatric oncology that hold promise.

Технології організації дистанційного навчання в Україні

To prevent the spread of coronavirus infection, educational institutions from time to time switch to distance learning. The article reviews the ways of organizing distance learning in Ukraine, existing technologies for distance learning, electronic resources, and educational platforms. The most common web services for online learning are considered. The advantages and disadvantages of distance learning in the conditions of classical education are determined. As a result, it was found that the disadvantages outweigh the advantages, which significantly affects the quality of education as a whole. The main disadvantages: the low level of digital literacy, insufficient control over the acquisition of knowledge, and lack of social interaction between peers. Despite these shortcomings, the organization of distance learning by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine and educational institutions is performed at a sufficient level. However, this process needs to be improved in terms of privacy, data protection and digital literacy. To address the lack of proper parental control, it is proposed at the state level to provide parents with the opportunity to be present directly during their children's distance learning, while being able to maintain their jobs and wages.

Reflections on erotization and childhood from the analysis of advertisements

This paper aims to analyze advertisements and discuss child erotization in content and images of children to disseminate both products that can be used by them and the use of children in advertisements for the adult public. The advertisements make use of different technologies and are disseminated both in print and digital media. To carry out this work we rely on some studies on erotization of children's bodies, presenting elements that build the image of the adult child in the media under the bias of erotization and sensuality, their multiple readings and meanings attributed to them. We consider that these controversial discourses are the engine of early sexuality. We use the theoretical assumptions of the French line discourse analysis. Analyzing this corpus is justified because it is necessary to look at children's advertising with responsibility. Anticipating incompatible attitudes with the age group can promote the decline of childhood, because the child ceases to live a very important stage in human development and can trigger future psychological problems and present difficulties of creativity, socialization and disorders not proper to childhood. We also emphasize that the adultization process refers to the child's distance from the infantile world and early insertion into the adult world, of which they incorporate physical and psychological typologies.

Correlation of Anthropometry Characteristics and Six-Minute Walking Test Distance In Children Aged 7-8

Background: The six-minute walk test (6MWT) is a useful test for measuring functional capacity and predicting morbidity and mortality. The 6MWT is not widely used in children because the exact reference data are often not known, and the test requires concentration and co-operation from the participants, which is harder to manage in children. The anthropometry characteristic influences the 6MWT distance. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the correlation between anthropometry characteristic and 6MWT distance in children aged 7-9 years old. Methods: This research was an observational analytic study using cross-sectional design that was conducted on August 2013. Weight, height and body mass index were measured according to the Decree of Ministry of Health Republic of Indonesia. The 6MWT was performed according to American Thoracic Society (ATS) in a 15m indoor walkway. The data were analyzed using several tests, including Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for data normality test and Pearson’s correlation test. Results: The average 6 MWT distance in all subjects was 390.45±50.05 meters, with the average 6 MWT distance in subjects aged 7 and 8 were 370.15±45.64 and 410.75±46.47 meters, respectively. Pearson’s correlation test showed a positive correlation between height and 6 MWT in allsubjects, but there was no correlation between height, weight and body mass index with 6 MWT distance in each age group. Conclusion: The anthropometry characteristic was not correlated with the 6MWT distance in children aged 7 and 8 years old.

Association between pre/perinatal exposure to POPs and children's anogenital distance at age 4 years: A study from the INMA-Asturias cohort.

Prenatal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals may impair genital development and alter reproductive tract anatomy. Anogenital distance (AGD) is a useful biomarker of exposure to chemicals that act as endocrine disruptors. We evaluated associations between prenatal and perinatal exposure to several persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and AGD in 4-year-old children. Data were drawn from the INMA-Asturias cohort. Pediatricians measured the anofourchetal distance in female children and anoscrotal distance in male children. The anogenital index (AGI) was defined as the AGD divided by the child's weight at age of examination. We measured the levels of two hexachlorocyclohexane isomers, hexachlorobenzene, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, six polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners, and six polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners in maternal serum at 12 gestational weeks (n=155) and in cord blood serum (n=229). Anthropometric and parental sociodemographic variables were collected via face-to-face interviews. Linear regression models were used to evaluate the relationship between exposure to POPs and AGI, adjusted for confounders and stratified by sex. In male children, we found inverse associations between AGI and maternal concentrations of PCB-138 (ß=-0.041, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.074, -0.008, second tertile), PCB-153 (ß=-0.052, 95% CI: -0.085, -0.020, second tertile), PCB-180 ß=-0.065, 95% CI: -0.096, -0.035, second tertile; ß=-0.042, 95% CI: -0.073, -0.011, third tertile), PBDE-209 (ß=-0.031, 95% CI: -0.058, -0.006), cord serum concentrations of PCB-153 (ß=-0.029, 95% CI: -0.059, -0.000, second tertile; ß=-0.047, 95% CI: -0.085, -0.008, third tertile), and PCB-180 (ß=-0.041, 95% CI: -0.078, -0.005, third tertile). In female children, AGI was positively associated with maternal serum concentrations of PCB-101 (ß=0.039, 95% CI: 0.002, 0.076, second tertile), and higher cord serum levels of 4,4'-DDT (ß=0.032, 95% CI: 0.003, 0.061, third tertile) and 4,4'-DDE (ß=0.040, 95% CI: 0.011, 0.069, third tertile). Our findings provide evidence of associations between specific POPs and AGI in boys and girls aged 4 years, and suggest that pre/perinatal exposure to POPs has a feminizing effect in males and a masculinizing effect in females.

Pola Komunikasi Jarak Jauh Anak Dengan Orang Tua Mahasiswa Fakultas Ushuluddin Adab dan Dakwah IAIN Batusangkar

The main problem in this study is the pattern of long-distance communication between children and parents. The pattern here is defined as the form, method, communication model used by FUAD IAIN Batusangkar students when communicating with their parents, and also the barriers to the child's long distance communication with parents. This study used descriptive qualitative method. The research informants were FUAD IAIN Batusangkar students who lived far from their parents. Data collection techniques that researchers use are observation, in-depth interviews. According to Sugiyono (2013: 245) data analysis in qualitative research carried out since before entering the field, during the field and after the field. The results showed that the pattern of long-distance communication between children and parents of students of the Fakltas Ushuluddin Adab and Da'wah was a Stimulus-Response Communication Pattern in two Directions they experience and equally respond to what message they receive, and between them there is no limit to each other when communicating the point here is that in this communication process both communicators and communicants have the same position, so that the communication process can begin and ends where and whenever.

Trifocal toric intra-ocular lens implantation in pediatric traumatic cataract

PurposeTo present the case of a 6-year-old child who presented with a traumatic cataract and was treated with trifocal toric intra-ocular lens implantation. ObservationsThe child's uncorrected distance visual acuity improved from +0.7 logMAR preoperatively to 0.00 logMAR after cataract surgery, with spectacle independence and no reported side effects Conclusions and importanceIn carefully selected pediatric patients with traumatic cataracts, trifocal toric intra-ocular lenses may offer some benefit over standard monofocal lenses

Examining mobility, independence, motor function, participation, and parental stress in a school-aged Turkish cerebral palsy population: a cross-sectional study.

This study aimed to describe a school-aged Turkish cerebral palsy (CP) population in terms of gross motor function, mobility, independence, and participation, and to investigate parental stress. Mobility (Functional Mobility Scale (FMS)), independence (Barthel Index (BI)), motor function (Gross Motor Function Measurement (GMFM)), functional classification (Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS)), participation (Pediatric Outcome Data Collection Instrument (PODCI)), and parents' stress (Parental Stress Scale (PSS)) of 100 school-aged children with CP aged 5-15years old were evaluated. School-related difficulties and restrictions were also questioned. Of the 100 children with GMFCS levels I-V, almost half had independent mobility on level or all surfaces according to the FMS, with a relatively high GMFM score (72.8%), and above average BI (12 from 20), and PODCI Global Functioning (62.8%) scores. Strong-to-very strong correlations were determined between all test batteries. A mean score of 42.3 ± 9.92 out of 90 was obtained for parental stress with a weak correlation to the GMFCS and the child's mobility distance according to family (p < 0.05). Turkish school-aged children with CP displayed functional abilities that are above average besides experiencing restrictions in the school environment. Parents' view on the physical condition of the school varied depending on functional and mobility levels of their children.

Impact of Children's Postural Variation on Viewing Distance and Estimated Visual Acuity.

PurposeReliable estimation of visual acuity requires that observers maintain a constant distance from the target, but use of chin rests is not always feasible. Our aim was to quantify children's movement during community testing and its impact on near (40 cm) and intermediate (150 cm) acuity measures.MethodsThirty-three 7-year-old children performed several acuity tests run on a tablet computer, administered in the child's home by a trained lay screener. The tablet webcam was used to derive a continuous estimate of the child's position during testing. We estimated acuity using both the recommended viewing distance and using trial-by-trial estimates of the child's physical distance from the screen.ResultsAlthough initial positioning in the 40-cm viewing distance condition was accurate, on 18% of trials children moved sufficiently to support a 0.1 logMAR improvement in acuity, leading 16% of staircases to overestimate acuity by more than one line. Initial positioning for the 150-cm condition was less accurate, but the longer viewing distance minimized the impact of children's movement on the visual angle of the target. Overall, at 150 cm 8% of staircases were overestimated by more than 0.1 logMAR.ConclusionsChildren move substantially during intermediate and near acuity tests despite assessors encouraging maintenance of the correct viewing distance.Translational RelevanceReal-time estimates of the child's physical distance from the target are possible when assessments are conducted on camera-enabled devices. Correction for movement will likely lead to more accurate measures of near and intermediate visual acuity.

Prenatal Exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants and Anogenital Distance in Children at 18 Months

Background: Anogenital distance (AGD) is a measure of in utero exposure to hormonally active agents. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the association between prenatal exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and AGD. Methods: POP levels were measured in pregnant women, and the AGD was recorded in 43 offspring at 18 months. We used linear regression models to analyze the association between maternal POP exposure and offspring AGD. We defined the anogenital index (AGI) as AGD divided by weight at 18 months (AGI = AGD / weight at 18 months [mm/kg]) and included this variable in the regression models. Results: AGI measure was 2.35 (0.61) and 1.38 (0.45) in males and females, respectively. AGI was inversely associated with lipid-adjusted concentrations of PBDE-99 (β = −0.28, 95% confidence interval [CI]: −0.51, −0.04) and PBDE-153 (β = −0.61, 95% CI: −1.11, −0.11) in males. We did not find any statistically significant relationship between any POPs and AGI in females. Conclusions: Environmental exposure to POPs may affect genital development and result in reproductive tract alterations with potentially relevant health consequences in maturity.

Perceptual Learning in Children With Infantile Nystagmus: Effects on Reading Performance.

Perceptual learning improves visual acuity and reduces crowding in children with infantile nystagmus (IN). Here, we compare reading performance of 6- to 11-year-old children with IN with normal controls, and evaluate whether perceptual learning improves their reading. Children with IN were divided in two training groups: a crowded training group (n = 18; albinism: n = 8; idiopathic IN: n = 10) and an uncrowded training group (n = 17; albinism: n = 9; idiopathic IN: n = 8). Also 11 children with normal vision participated. Outcome measures were: reading acuity (the smallest readable font size), maximum reading speed, critical print size (font size below which reading is suboptimal), and acuity reserve (difference between reading acuity and critical print size). We used multiple regression analyses to test if these reading parameters were related to the children's uncrowded distance acuity and/or crowding scores. Reading acuity and critical print size were 0.65 ± 0.04 and 0.69 ± 0.08 log units larger for children with IN than for children with normal vision. Maximum reading speed and acuity reserve did not differ between these groups. After training, reading acuity improved by 0.12 ± 0.02 logMAR and critical print size improved by 0.11 ± 0.04 logMAR in both IN training groups. The changes in reading acuity, critical print size, and acuity reserve of children with IN were tightly related to changes in their uncrowded distance acuity and the changes in magnitude and extent of crowding. Our findings are the first to show that visual acuity is not the only factor that restricts reading in children with IN, but that crowding also limits their reading performance. By targeting both of these spatial bottlenecks in children with IN, our perceptual learning paradigms significantly improved their reading acuity and critical print size. This shows that perceptual learning can effectively transfer to reading.

The influence of parent's body mass index on peer selection: An experimental approach using virtual reality

Relatively little is known about the influence of psychosocial factors, such as familial role modeling and social network on the development and maintenance of childhood obesity. We investigated peer selection using an immersive virtual reality environment. In a virtual schoolyard, children were confronted with normal weight and overweight avatars either eating or playing. Fifty-seven children aged 7–13 participated. Interpersonal distance to the avatars, child's BMI, self-perception, eating behavior and parental BMI were assessed. Parental BMI was the strongest predictor for the children's minimal distance to the avatars. Specifically, a higher mothers' BMI was associated with greater interpersonal distance and children approached closer to overweight eating avatars. A higher father's BMI was associated with a lower interpersonal distance to the avatars. These children approached normal weight playing and overweight eating avatar peers closest. The importance of parental BMI for the child's social approach/avoidance behavior can be explained through social modeling mechanisms. Differential effects of paternal and maternal BMI might be due to gender specific beauty ideals. Interventions to promote social interaction with peer groups could foster weight stabilization or weight loss in children.